Rudolf moved the Habsburg capital from Vienna to Prague in 1583. The dowager empresses, her aunt Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick But in 1540, just before his death, Zpolya had a son, John II Sigismund, who was promptly elected King by the Diet. Wickham, Chris. An ardent Catholic and rigidly autocratic prince, Philip pursued an aggressive political, economic and religious policy toward the Dutch, resulting in a Dutch rebellion shortly after he became king. Charles V abdicated as archduke of Austriain 1522, and nine years after that he had the German princes elect Ferdinand as King of the Romans, who thus became his designated successor. At age 17, Henry's march on Bohemia was his first independent military command. Unable to flee back to his stronghold in Sicily due to an Ottonian naval blockade, al-Qasim faced Otto's army in a pitched battle south of Crotone at Cape Colonna on July 14, 982. In 1556, an ordinance was issued to ensure imperial and dynastic affairs were managed separately (by two groups of officials from the same institution) though. For other uses, see. A majority of the assembled princes favored the elder Conrad, as the father of a seven-year-old son implied a more stable dynastic future for the kingdom. The Rhineland, Bohemia, Austria, and the south of the German territories remained mostly Catholic, while the north and cities such as Strasbourg and Frankfurt became bulwarks of Protestantism. Ferdinand gained wider political influence, even if his personal contribution in Nrdlingen was rather limited. Otto II employed monks among his top political advisers, including Ekkehard I and Majolus of Cluny. Otto the Great also forced the king and his heir apparent Harald Bluetooth to convert to Christianity. They were parents to six children: On 2 July 1648 in Linz, Ferdinand III married his second wife, Archduchess Maria Leopoldine of Austria (16321649). The Imperial College, whose members elected the emperor, still consisted exclusively of feudal lords. During the festivities a power struggle between the archbishops of Milan and Ravenna ensued and was settled in favor of Milan. The Church and its organs served as a supporting and stabilizing factor in the Empire's structure. The effects were disastrous enough to cause the ruling Venetian families to surrender to Otto II, but Otto II's untimely death that year prevented him from capitalizing on his victory. Conrad and Gisela would remain in Saxony until March 1025, when they moved on to the Duchy of Swabia, celebrating Easter at Augsburg and then proceeded on to the Duchy of Bavaria, spending the feast of Pentecost at Regensburg. Although John V had been restored, Manuel was forced to go as an honorary hostage to the court of the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I at Prousa (Bursa). Formally, a string is a finite, ordered sequence of characters such as letters, digits or spaces. Rudolf II (18 July 1552 20 January 1612) was Holy Roman Emperor (15761612), King of Hungary and Croatia (as Rudolf I, 15721608), King of Bohemia (15751608/1611) and Archduke of Austria (15761608). [3] He had several illegitimate children by his mistress Catherina Strada. The weaker ones were on the receiving end of the political machinery of this confederal elective monarchy, de facto ruling over not much more than their familys hereditary lands. He was a son of Empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Emperor Francis I, and the brother of Marie Antoinette, Queen of France, Under the terms of the Treaty of Merseburg, Conrad divided Poland among Mieszko, Otto and Detric, another half-brother. In both cases, the link was essentially a contractual one, directly linked to Ferdinands ability to provide protection against the Turks. Otto I sought a marriage alliance between his Imperial house and the Eastern Macedonian dynasty. "Holy Roman Empire." [4][10] Cardinal Franco Ferrucci then crowned himself as Benedict VI's successor, becoming Antipope Boniface VII. The term Roman emperor is older, dating from Otto II (died 983). Having progressed quite far on the way to his target, he took a fateful bath in a river in current-day Turkey and drowned. After some five years of siege, Manuel II entrusted the city to his nephew, aided by a French garrison of 300 men led by Seigneur Jean de Chteaumorand and embarked (along with a suite of 40 people) on a long trip abroad along with the Marshal. Cunigunde was assisted by her brothers Bishop Dietrich I of Metz and Duke Henry V of Bavaria. In order to give the hope of dynastic continuity after his death, Otto I again confirmed Otto II as his heir on 2 February 965, the third anniversary of Otto I's coronation as Emperor. In 1554, Ferdinand sent Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq to Constantinople to discuss a border treaty with Suleiman, but he could achieve nothing. Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter! It was one of Europes largest medieval and early modern states, but its power base was unstable and continually shifting. The situation south of the Alps was chaotic. Otto of Worms loyally served the new Emperor and received the March of Verona in 955, as the actual Duchy of Carinthia was given to Henry IV of Bavaria. Upon hearing of Pandulf's death, Otto II, ruling from Rome, traveled south to install Thrasimund IV as Duke of Spoleto. As long as he hoped for a favorable response from his humiliating overtures to Suleiman, Ferdinand was not inclined to grant the peace which the Protestants demanded at the Diet of Regensburg which met in April 1532. [2], He married the Spanish Infanta, his cousin Maria Anna of Spain, after years of negotiations with Spanish relatives in 1631. Administration of Royal Hungary, Bohemia and Croatia, Milan Kruhek: Cetin, grad izbornog sabora Kraljevine Hrvatske 1527, Karlovaka upanija, 1997, Karslovac. When they managed to speak with one voice, the Holy Roman The third kingdom evolved into the Kingdom of Germany during the late 9th and early 10th centuries. One year later, France decisively defeated Spain at Rocroi, allowing them to dedicate more troops to the German theatre.[19][20]. Later generations are included although Austrian titles of nobility were abolished in 1919. Whereas the Ottonians followed a policy of informal public submission and subsequent reconciliation, Conrad used treason trials to declare rebels as "public enemies" to legitimize his subsequent harsh treatment, as he had done with Ernest II of Swabia and Adalbero. [7][8] His approach to Imperial problems, including governance, human relations and religious matters was generally flexible, moderate and tolerant. [76] On 1 August 1034, Conrad officially incorporated Burgundy into the Holy Roman Empire at a ceremony held in the Cathedral of Geneva. Ferdinand had the Aulic Council restructured, which competed with the Imperial Chamber Court and had already been recognized in the Peace of Westphalia. In order to reinforce his dynastic bonds with the German nobility, Bolesaw, a widower, married Oda of Meissen, daughter of the Saxon margrave Eckard I of Meissen. [28] The unresolved problems in southern Italy and the Slavic uprising on the Empire's eastern border made the Empire's political situation extremely unstable. After the offer was rejected, they approached Duke William V of Aquitaine, who, initially intrigued by the offer, rejected as well. The nobles saw use of these treason trials not as mere power shifts in favor of the Emperor, but as a cruel breach of German tradition. Some of Ferdinand's own compositions survive in manuscripts: masses, motets, hymns and other sacred music, as well as a few secular pieces. John W. Bernhardt, in Gerd Althoff, Johannes Fried, Patrick J. Geary, eds. But when he died and the Staufer era came to an end in 1250, these challenges came to the fore with increased intensity. Otto II appointed Willigis, the Archbishop of Mainz, to serve as his regent over Germany. His political adviser Trauttmansdorff advanced to the position of Prime Minister of Austria and Chief diplomat, but was replaced by Johann Ludwig von Nassau-Hadamar in 1647 as his health had begun to deteriorate. Born ca. [34][35], Conrad summoned Adalbero to court at Bamberg on 18 May 1035, to answer an indictment of treason for his actions regarding Hungary. Conrad II's mother was Adelaide of Metz. [26] At first, Ferdinand accepted this situation and he gave considerable freedom to the Bohemian estates. To fulfill these tasks, Otto II strengthened the legal integrity and economic independence of the bishops from the secular nobility. [38] In return, the various bishoprics and abbeys of the Empire were granted extensive landholdings and secular authority, providing immunity from the jurisdiction of the secular nobles. Their eldest son, Don Julius Caesar d'Austria, was likely born between 1584 and 1586 and received an education and opportunities for political and social prominence from his father. Rudolf was a patron of the occult sciences, along with this and his practice of tolerance towards Jews; it was during his reign that the legend of the Golem of Prague was established. He was likely motivated by the high risk associated with his expedition into Italy to claim the Imperial title from the Pope. The Pope refused to recognize Ferdinand as Emperor until 1559, when peace was reached between France and the Habsburgs. Rudolf loved collecting paintings, and was often reported to sit and stare in rapture at a new work for hours on end. [14] At the same time, Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, a German protestant in French service, took the Habsburg possessions in Alsace and the stronghold of Breisach after a long siege. During the post-Staufer period, in addition to their distinct political and economic position, they distanced themselves mentally and culturally from the other, northern inhabitants of the empire and started referring to them as Teutons or Germans. So he thanked Otto by reviving the vacant imperial title and crowned him emperor. Bezprym's own men murdered him in spring 1032, which created a power vacuum in Poland. According to the terms set at the First Congress of Vienna in 1515, Ferdinand married Anne Jagiellonica, daughter of King Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary on 22 July 1515. Otto II proceeded to hold court in Rome, making the city his Imperial capital, where he received princes and nobles from all parts of western Europe.[9]. [9][10][11] Ferdinand's motto was Fiat iustitia, et pereat mundus: "Let justice be done, though the world perish".[12]. As central authority decreased after the Staufer emperors, a decentralization process kicked in that transferred power from the ancient feudal aristocracy to the late medieval and early modern burgher class, who populated the cities. Pope Benedict VI, who had been appointed by Otto I, had been imprisoned by the Romans in Castel Sant'Angelo. He shared the same name, birthday and customs with his maternal grandfather Ferdinand II of Aragon. [3] Charles and Lothair were also feuding, with Charles being exiled from France over an infidelity allegation concerning Lothair's wife. This required the various counts and bishops to report all imperial property in their domains, castles and abbeys. Under Ferdinand the fortifications of Vienna were massively expanded and updated as the emperor invested a total sum of over 80,000 fl. While he was preparing to counterattack Muslim forces, a major uprising by the Slavs broke out in 983, forcing the Empire to abandon its major territorial holdings east of the Elbe river. License. [30], While these specific failings came back to haunt the Empire in subsequent decades, perhaps the greatest weakness of the Peace of Augsburg was its failure to take into account the growing diversity of religious expression emerging in the so-called evangelical and reformed traditions. Ferdinand sent the Pope a long accusation of treason against Martinuzzi in 87 articles, supported by 116 witnesses. World History Foundation is a non-profit organization registered in Canada. Oldich's son Bretislaus I was appointed as Count of Moravia. Otto II's troops marched on Byzantine-controlled Apulia in January 982 with the purpose of annexing the territory into his Empire. The Staufer dynasty was one of the Holy Roman Empires most remarkable imperial houses. of Aragon", "Rhtorique de la perte. Charles abdicated as Emperor in August 1556 in favor of his brother Ferdinand. Under royal service, the bishops and abbots were required to provide hospitality and accommodations to the Emperor and his court when he arrived. [11] This war lasted till 1606, and was known as the "Long Turkish War".[1]. Pietro IV's younger son, Vitale Candiano, survived, however, and fled to Otto II's court in Saxony with plans to depose the new pro-Byzantine Doge, Pietro I Orseolo. Already in the 12th century, this union of cities managed to force the English king to exempt its members from all tolls in London. Generations are numbered by male-line descent from the first archdukes. [19] Emir Abu al-Qasim, who had declared a Holy War (jihad) against Otto, retreated when he noticed the unexpected strength of Otto II's troops when the latter was not far from Rossano Calabro. Unlike his brother, he opposed Albrecht of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and participated in his defeat. Conrad pardoned Ernest and released him from prison in 1028, but Gisela retained regency over Swabia. Both were descendants of King Henry IConrad in the fifth generation and Gisela in the fourth. [29], In 976, Otto II had deposed Henry II as Duke of Bavaria and imprisoned him. In spite of the huge Austrian sacrifices, he was not able to collect enough money to pay for the expenses of the defence costs of Austrian lands. [10] More sympathetic chroniclers said that it was due to his reddish complexion. Bruno was again appointed regent over the eleven-year-old Otto II during Otto I's absence. While the imperial government of the Roman Empire was rarely called into question during its five centuries in the west and fifteen centuries in the east, individual emperors often faced unending challenges in the form of usurpation and perpetual civil wars. This appointment elevated the descendants of Otto the Great above those of Henry I in the selection process, further dividing Otto II and Henry II. His conversation is quite charming; he pleases us in every way; he honours us to the greatest extent and loves us no less. After three-and-a-half years in Italy, Otto I returned to Germany early in 965 as Holy Roman Emperor. An alliance between Sweden and France was fully effective since 1642. [55][58][59], The Duchy of Bohemia was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in 1004 during the GermanPolish Wars, that lasted from 1002 to 1018. One of Otto II's first acts was to confirm the rights and possessions of the Archbishop of Magdeburg. The key events during his reign were the conflict with the Ottoman Empire, which in the 1520s began a great advance into Central Europe, and the Protestant Reformation, which resulted in several wars of religion. The raids particularly affected Adalbero's domain of Carinthia, which shared a long, eastern border with Hungary. Ferdinand is said to have spoken several languages, although how many and to what degree is unclear. Otto I's military protection of Pietro IV ensured his hold over power in Venice despite his autocratic tendencies over the republican city. Leopold II (Peter Leopold Josef Anton Joachim Pius Gotthard; 5 May 1747 1 March 1792) was Holy Roman Emperor, King of Hungary and Bohemia, and Archduke of Austria from 1790 to 1792, and Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1765 to 1790. After decades of religious and political unrest in the German states, Charles V ordered a general Diet in Augsburg at which the various states would discuss the religious problem and its solution. Otto was a man of small stature, by nature brave and impulsive, and by training an accomplished knight. In the presence of the German dukes, Conrad demanded that Adalbero be stripped of all his titles and lands. Otto II, however, severely punished the conspirators: Henry II was imprisoned at Ingelheim and Bishop Abraham at Corvey. [32], After his coronation, Conrad issued decrees reorganising the monasteries and dioceses of Italy, with the explicit objective of bringing the Patriarchate of Venice under imperial control (see the Schism of the Three Chapters). After a failed first invasion into Bohemia, Otto II marched to Bohemia a second time in August 977. Even though the reports had been produced by officials, the process also proved to be an extremely busy time for the emperor, as despite all the advisers, he had to make the decisions. Following the resumption of hostilities between the Empire and Poland in 1028, Oldich went on the offensive against Poland, reconquering Moravia by 1029, which helped to stabilize his duchy. Otto II also continued the work of Otto I in subordinating the Catholic Church to Imperial control. The Maltese knights Johann Jacob von Dhaun (member of the Lower Austrian estate, a union of the local nobility) and Christoph Simon von Thun (head of Ferdinand's Imperial court and household) had greatly influenced the education of the young archduke. Charles's choices were appropriate. Rudolf was even alleged by one person to have owned the Voynich manuscript, a codex whose author and purpose, as well as the language and script and posited cipher remain unidentified to this day. [8] The emperor reissued the instructions for the peace talks for Trautmannsdorf, who left for Westphalia as chief negotiator. Sigismund of Luxembourg (15 February 1368 9 December 1437) was a monarch who as King of Hungary and Croatia (jure uxoris) from 1387, King of Germany from 1410, King of Bohemia from 1419, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1433 until his death in 1437, as well as prince-elector of Brandenburg (13781388 and 14111415). Naturalia (minerals and gemstones) were arranged in a 37 cabinet display that had three vaulted chambers in front, each about 5.5 metres wide by 3 metres high and 60 metres long, connected to a main chamber 33 metres long. Szalay, J. y Barti, L. (1896). Romulus was placed on the imperial throne by his father, the magister militum Orestes, and, at that time, still a minor, was little more than a figurehead for his father.After Romulus ruled for just ten months, the barbarian general In the Netherlands, Philip's ascension in Spain raised particular problems; for the sake of harmony, order, and prosperity Charles had not blocked the Reformation, and had tolerated a high level of local autonomy. The Holy Roman Empires next dynasty, the Staufers, nevertheless pushed imperial power in secular matters to its very limit. By contributing to WorldHistory.org, Simon aims to introduce more readers to the extensive, at times daunting, but always interesting and magnificent Middle Ages. Emperor Otto I's lieutenants, Herman Billung and Gero, harassed Slavic settlers beginning in the 940s. In December 1400, he embarked to England to meet Henry IV of England who received him at Blackheath on the 21st of that month,[8] making him the only Byzantine emperor ever to visit England, where he stayed at Eltham Palace until mid-February 1401, and a joust took place in his honour. Soon, Henry's successor Conrad II claimed to have acquired Henry's rights to the Burgundian succession, which Rudolph disputed. During the Ottoman wars the territory of the former Kingdom of Hungary shrunk by around 70%. Conrad presented himself as a candidate for election, as did his younger cousin Conrad. Lambert I and Reginar IV returned to Lorraine in 973 to reclaim their land by force. [14] A lion and a tiger were allowed to roam the castle, documented by the account books which record compensation paid to survivors of attacks, or to family members of victims.[15]. [76], Though Burgundy had been brought under full imperial control, the kingdom was allowed a remarkable degree of autonomy. A final meeting between Otto II and Adelaide was arranged shortly before Pentecost in 978, but a peaceful outcome was not achieved, forcing Adelaide to retire to Burgundy and to the protection of her brother King Conrad of Burgundy. 10 Dec 2022. While Otto the Great had pardoned rebellious family members for their crimes, Otto II followed a different policy. He patronized natural philosophers such as the botanist Charles de l'Ecluse, and the astronomers Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler both attended his court. [72] Henry II, the son of Rudolph's sister Gisela of Burgundy, was his nephew and closest living male relative. Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the TuileriesJacques-Louis David (Public Domain). Romulus was placed on the imperial throne by his father, the magister militum Orestes, and, at that time, still a minor, was little more than a figurehead for his father.After Romulus ruled for just ten months, the barbarian general [6], Rudolf succeeded his father Maximilian II on 12 October 1576. [78] Henry, who would later become Emperor Henry III, became his father's chief counselor. He was a son of Empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Emperor Francis I, and the brother of Marie Antoinette, Queen of France, [3] While the emperor was not anti-monastic, he immediately abandoned the favoritism that had been shown to men of the Church under Henry II. The Holy Roman Empire was not a unitary state, but a confederation of small and medium-sized political entities. [31] The event lasted seven days and was attended by Conrad's son and heir Henry; Cnut the Great, King of England, Denmark and Norway; Rudolph III of Burgundy and around 70 senior clerics, including the Archbishops of Cologne, Mainz, Trier, Magdeburg, Salzburg, Milan and Ravenna. [13] Pandulf's older son Landulf IV received Capua and Benevento while his younger son Pandulf II received Salerno. [2][3], Ferdinand was the first Habsburg monarch to be recognized as a musical composer. Find all the latest real-time sports coverage, live reports, analysis and comment on Telegraph Sport. [4] In 1583, he moved the court to Prague. However, before that came to pass, the Holy Roman Empire was no more. Henry settled the conflict by 1031 by bestowing titles to eastern Bavarian lands between the Lajta and Fischa rivers to the Hungarian nobility. Charles IV (Czech: Karel IV. Conrad's rival to the Burgundian throne, Count Odo II of Blois had already invaded the kingdom to secure his rule and controlled large sections of the kingdom's western territories. "This had profound implications for state formation in south-eastern Europe. However, Otto II's mother and his wife Theophanu each mistrusted the influence the other held over the Emperor, causing friction within the Imperial household. Not satisfied with the territorial gains made under Otto I, Otto II's policy was based not only on securing his power in Rome and cooperating with the Papacy, but also on gaining absolute dominion over the whole of Italy. The Lombard League, an alliance of North Italian cities, had been a thorn in Barbarossas side, and in the north, the commercial centers along the North Sea and Baltic coasts, such as Hamburg, Bremen, and Danzig, joined forces by forming the Hanseatic League. According to hearsay passed on in a letter written by Johannes Marcus Marci in 1665, Rudolf was said to have acquired the manuscript at some unspecified time for 600 gold ducats. The marriage produced six children, including his successors, Ferdinand IV of Hungary and Emperor Leopold I. The dukes of Saxony and Lorraine and his cousin Conrad of Carinthia opposed his rule. [10], On 14 January 1040 Conrad II's heir Henry issued a charter, in which he announced his official designation as Rex romanorum ("King of the Romans"), thus effectively elevating the traditional Frankish kingship to Imperial authority. However, the situation in Italy had become increasingly unstable after the death of Henry II. [3] When Rudolf was a prince, Nostradamus prepared a horoscope which was dedicated to him as 'Prince and King'. Ferdinand had an interest in keeping Bohemia separate from imperial jurisdiction and making the connection between Bohemia and the Empire looser (Bohemia did not have to pay taxes to the Empire). Suleiman marched into Hungary (see Siege of Buda (1541)) and not only drove Ferdinand out of central Hungary, he forced Ferdinand to agree to pay tribute for his lands in western Hungary.[22]. He was more intrigued by occult learning such as astrology and alchemy, which was mainstream in the Renaissance period, and had a wide variety of personal hobbies such as horses, clocks, collecting rarities, and being a patron of the arts. The political reorientation of Pilgrim also weakened the opposition towards the new king. [30] Otto III's right to the throne, however, was supported by Archbishop Willigis of Mainz and the Dukes of Saxony, Bavaria, and Swabia. The maritime republics of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa had built up a significant amount of autonomy under the Staufer emperors. According to canon law, marriage was forbidden among relatives from the first to the seventh generation. Following the defeat of Otto II at Stilo in 983, the Lutici Federation of Polabian Slavs revolted against their German overlords, sparking the Great Slav Rising (Slawenaufstand). Otto II reduced the size of Duchy of Bavaria by almost a third. However, this decline of imperial power once again created a power vacuum that led to open conflict. In that year Ferdinand made peace with the Ottomans, splitting Hungary into a Habsburg sector in the west and John Zpolya's domain in the east, the latter effectively a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire. Conrad stripped his stepson of his title, declared him a public enemy, and had him excommunicated. Charles fled to Otto II's court and paid homage to Otto II. Though the nominal co-ruler of the Empire, he was denied any role in its administration. When Otto II sent an imperial representative, Count Sicco, to secure his release, Crescentius I and Cardinal Franco Ferrucci had Benedict VI murdered while still in prison in 974. Reviews revealed, that Ferdinand surrendered numerous previous claims and was ready for greater concessions than were ultimately necessary.[23]. [9], Historians have traditionally blamed Rudolf's preoccupation with the arts, occult sciences, and other personal interests as the reason for the political disasters of his reign. An Austrian could make a career in Bohemian administration but usually only after naturalization, except for some royal protgs such as Florian Griespeck, while it was virtually unheard of (in contrast with the future) for a Bohemian to gain advancement in the Austrian government. The exact reason for this unusual procedure has been lost to history. Other European powers regularly and ruthlessly exploited these divisions. [18] In return for the throne, Archduke Ferdinand promised to respect the historic rights, freedoms, laws and customs of the Croats when they united with the Hungarian kingdom and to defend Croatia from Ottoman invasion. The death of Bishop Ulrich of Augsburg on 4 July, brought the conflict between the cousins to a head. The outbreak ultimately led to the death of the Emperor himself in his palace at Rome on December 7, 983, at the age of 28, after having reigned for just over a decade. In the summer of 1518 Ferdinand was sent to Flanders following his brother Charles's arrival in Spain as newly appointed King Charles I the previous autumn. [18], An Imperial Diet was arranged for 1641 in Regensburg, where the estates discussed possible peace arrangements. During his first seven years as Emperor, he was constantly occupied with maintaining Imperial power against internal rivals and external enemies. In 996, Otto III invested Otto of Worms' son Bruno as Pope Gregory V. When Emperor Otto III died in 1002, both Otto of Worms, Conrad's grandfather, and Henry IV became eligible for Kingship of Germany. Free from his confinement, he seized the infant Otto III and, as a member of the ruling Ottonian dynasty, claimed the regency of the Empire for himself. In January 1027, the king summoned a synod at Frankfurt to end the dispute, but a conclusion could not be reached. Otto II returned to Rome in September to name a new Pope, selecting the Bishop of Pavia Pietro Canepanova (who reigned as Pope John XIV) in November or early December. However, Otto was allowed to style himself "Duke of Worms" and his original territory was expanded according to his rank. The Empire and Poland enjoyed peace for the remainder of Henry's reign. After the Treaty of Westphalia, the Habsburgs remained in place as Holy Roman Emperors, but their power was increasingly confined to their own Austrian, Bohemian, and Hungarian possessions. His son Henry was invested with the duchies of Swabia and Carinthia.[79]. His loving and intelligent wife and her brother, the Spanish Cardinal Infant Ferdinand, had great influence on Ferdinand and formed the most important link between the Habsburg courts in Madrid, Brussels and Vienna in the difficult period of the war for Habsburg following the death of Wallenstein. In relation to the other members of his dynasty, Otto II was the grandson of Henry I, son of Otto I, father of Otto III, and a first-cousin once removed to Henry II. In August 1634, the city of Donauwrth was recaptured, which had been occupied by Sweden since April 1632. This included the right to form alliances with foreign powers, even if they were not allowed to be directed against the emperor and the empire. And now, in accord with his nature, he has made himself a virtual haven for us in the midst of a twofold tempest, that of the season and that of fortune, and we have found refuge in the man himself and his character. [5] Simon von Thun instructed Ferdinand in military matters. Ottos family, the Ottonian Dynasty or Saxon Dynasty, ruled the empire until 1024 CE. Both the Archbishop of Mainz and the Bishop of Hildesheim claimed authority over the Abbey, including the right to invest and anoint the abbey's nuns. Dr. Istvn Kenyeres: The Financial Administrative Reforms and Revenues of Ferdinand I in Hungary, English summary at p- 92 Link1: For a general discussion of the impact of the Reformation on the Holy Roman Empire, see Holborn, chapters 69 (pp. Otto II attempted on several occasions to reunify the Lombard principalities politically and ecclesiastically into his Empire after Pandulf's death. On 7 May 973, Otto died of fever, and Otto II succeeded his father as sole Emperor without meeting any opposition. The lack of conflict between them after September 1027 suggests that they reconciled by then. With the appointment, the three southern German duchies of Swabia, Bavaria and Carinthia were all under the control of Emperor Conrad through his family members (his stepson Herman in Swabia, his son Henry in Bavaria, and his cousin Conrad in Carinthia). In 973, however, Otto I died. As mentioned before, Rudolf also attracted some of the best scientific instrument makers of the time, such as Jost Brgi, Erasmus Habermel and Hans Christoph Schissler. He was the last male member of the House of Negotiations for a peace agreement began in 1644 in Mnster and Osnabrck and lasted until 1648 while warfare continued. [2][6] The three kingdoms (Germany, Italy and Burgundy) formed the basis of the empire as the "royal triad" (regna tria). The Three Bishoprics, effectively under French control since 1552, were officially ceded to France. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. Charles abdicated in 1556 and Ferdinand adopted the title "Emperor elect", with the ratification of the Imperial diet taking place in 1558,[1][14] while Spain, the Spanish Empire, Naples, Sicily, Milan, the Netherlands, and Franche-Comt went to Philip, son of Charles. As such, the Church officials reported exclusively to the Emperor, acting as his personal vassals. It was housed at Prague Castle, where between 1587 and 1605 he built the northern wing to house his growing collections. This strengthened his authority as Emperor and secured the succession of his own son to the Imperial throne. A second daughter. Pandulf, meanwhile, fled to Constantinople. He was generous to the church and aided the spread of Christianity in many ways. Rudolf's legacy has traditionally been viewed in three ways:[1] an ineffectual ruler whose mistakes led directly to the Thirty Years' War; a great and influential patron of Northern Mannerist art; and an intellectual devotee of occult arts and learning which helped seed what would be called the Scientific Revolution. While the historical sources do not describe the goals of the conspirators, Henry II likely intended to restore his honor and to ensure his position as the second most influential man in the Empire. The rebellion was crushed and Conrad was stripped of his ducal title. [6][13], On the return to Germany, a severe epidemic decimated the ranks of Conrad's troops; Conrad's daughter-in-law and stepson also died. In response to the rebellion, Otto II stripped Henry II of his duchy and had him excommunicated. Generations are numbered by male-line descent from the first archdukes. His interior organs were separately buried in the Ducal Crypt. The precise term Sacrum Romanum Imperium dates only from 1254, though the term Holy Empire reaches back to 1157, and the term Roman Empire was used from 1034 to denote the lands under Conrad IIs rule. His campaigns under Otto I and Otto II incorporated all three of the southern Lombard principalities - Benevento, Capua, and Salerno - into the Holy Roman Empire. So Rudolf prepared to start a new war with the Turks. They were followed by the Princes of the Blood who, once the banquet in the royal palace finished, escorted [the emperor] to the lodgings which had been prepared for him in the Louvre castle]. The state church of the Roman Empire refers to the church approved by the Roman emperors after Theodosius I issued the Edict of Thessalonica in 380, which recognized the catholic orthodoxy of Nicene Christians in the Great Church as the Roman Empire's state religion. [6], Many artworks commissioned by Rudolf are unusually erotic. With both Otto the Great and Count Reginar III dead, it appears Otto II desired a fresh start with the two sons. In 1549, he agreed to support Ferdinand's claim, and Imperial armies marched into Transylvania. At last, peace - both in a religious and secular sense - returned to the Holy Roman Empire. 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