Hydrophobicity and high molecular weight reduces the formation of biofilm and assimilation of polyethylene by microbes. Although the waxworm researches lacked information about the biodegradation mechanism of PE [115], cutting holes on the surface of PE by waxworms and FTIR analysis of degraded PE indicated that PE pieces break down with the carboncarbon bond cleavage by mechanical force or enzymatic digestion or both. J Microbiol Biotechnol 18:477482, Secchi ER, Zarzur S (1999) Plastic debris ingested by a Blainvilles beaked whale, Mesoplodon densirostris, washed ashore in Brazil. Sarmah, P. & Rout, J. Biochemical profile of five species of cyanobacteria isolated from polyethylene surface in domestic sewage water of Silchar town, Assam, (India). The results are summarized in Table 3. Indian J Microbiol 52:411419. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2018.04.014, Hakkarainen M, Albertsson A-C (2004) Environmental Degradation of Polyethylene In: Albertsson A-C (ed) Long Term Properties of Polyolefins Advances in Polymer Science; Springer Berlin Heidelberg: Berlin, Heidelberg, 2004; Vol. 2022 Oct;33(5):477-487. doi: 10.1007/s10532-022-09993-y. The hydrocarbons with single and double bonds were observed most frequently. Prog Polym Sci 15:177192, Andrews GD, Subramanian PM (1992) Emerging technologies in plastics recycling. Cult. D1 from the guts of wax moth G. mellonella has been investigated [85]. Based on the annual production of various plastics such as polyamide (PA), polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyurethane (PU), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), PE and PP that have been widely used in Korea agriculture, comprise more than 60% of the total global plastic production and the annual production of PE is 116 million tons [21]. It represented that Korea is the second largest plastic consumer in the world. Fatty acids such as Octadecane (C18H38), Methyl tetradecanoate (C15H30O2), Dodecanoic acid, but-3-enyl ester (C18H34O2), Pentadecanoic acid, methyl ester (C16H32O2), 9-Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester (C17H32O2), Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester (C17H32O2), Octadecanoic acid, methyl ester (C19H38O2), 9-Eicosene (C20H40), Methyl eicosa 5,8,11,17-pentaenoate (C21H32O2), Heptadecanoic acid, 16-methyl-methyl ester (C19H38O2), 2,15-Octadecedien, 1-ol-acetate (C20H36O2), 1-Tetradecene, 2-decyl (C14H28) and 22-Tricosenoic acid (C23H44O2) were found in the control (Fig. 2A). The experiment of Skariyachan et al. J biochemical Technol 6(2):952961. Biodegradation of different polymer groups. The biodegradation of PE involves use of microbes or microbial communities that modify and consume the polymer as a source of energy leading to changes in its physico-chemical properties such as weight loss, structural deterioration, and eventually carbon fixation as a biomass [86, 97]. Acta Chim. This was further confirmed by the appearance of the aldehyde, ether and carboxyl functional groups after FTIR analysis of the polythene sheets and the appearance of a ketone which is also an intermediary product in the culture media. Inevitable use of PE to increase agricultural productivity in small territory has caused a significant social issue. High amounts of carboxylic acid esters, alcohols and ketones with anhydrides were observed in both matrices. SN Appl. Then the cells were washed with sterile TrisHCl buffer (6.05g Trizma base, Sigma, USA, in 1l of distilled water) and resuspended in mineral salt medium. 2) was constructed for this experiment. larvae of Tenebrio molitor. [31] synthesized TiO2-FeSt3 ferric stearate-polyethylene (TFPE) composite film and studied photo-degradation by treating UV irradiation for 240h and/or thermo-degradation at 70C for 30d. FTIR spectroscopy confirms the formation of carbonyl and hydroxyl group which assist in biodegradation of PE films. Biomacromology 14:17691776, Rojo F (2010) Enzymes for aerobic degradation of alkanes. 4). Polym Degrad Stab 95:10111021, Freudenberg K, Neish AC (1968) Constitution and biosynthesis of lignin. After 60 d of incubation with these strains approximately 10.70.2% and 6.10.3% of the PE films (100mg) were degraded, respectively. The biodegradation of plastics is a complex process involving various abiotic and biotic factors [28, 40, 56, 62, 98, 100, 127]. The variability of results in the degradation of polyethylene may also be related to the bacterial species used in the experiments. Once enzymes degrade polyethylene polymers into oligomers, microbial cells uptake the molecules through either Major Facilitator Superfamily proteins or ATP binding cassettes. The European plastics industry has grown rapidly, production of plastics in Europe was about 58million tonnes and the global production reached over 360 million tonnes in 2019 [4]. The dry weight loss determined in our study was lower than in most similar studies in recent years [24, 33,34,35]. Yoon et al. Degradation of the plastic polymer may be detected by a variety of methods, including: [i] . Chemosphere 64:12431252, Koutny M, Sancelme M, Dabin C, Pichon N, Delort A, Lemaire J (2006) Acquired biodegradability of polyethylenes containing pro-oxidant additives. 4, 186193 (2005). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. https://doi.org/10.1038/nmeth.f.303, Vimala PP, Mathew L (2016) Biodegradation of polyethylene using bacillus subtilis. It is intact for short period of time up to 95C and can be durable for longer hours at 80C. The maximum value 999 represents resemblance of analysed compounds to the substance in a spectra library (NIST MS Search 2.0.). Appl Biochem Biotechnol 141:85108, Gilan I, Hadar Y, Sivan A (2004) Colonization, biofilm formation and biodegradation of polyethylene by a strain of Rhodococcus ruber. They reduced the hydrophobicity and caused surface disruption of PE film after 28 d of incubation. Dey, U., Mondal, N. K., Das, K. & Dutta, S. An approach to polymer degradation through microbes. Microbes from variety of sources such as polyethylene buried in the soil, marine water, plastic dumping sites and rhizosphere soil of mangroves are reported to be a potential source for plastic degradation. Oxidation of PE with nitric acid has been known to promote fragmentation of PE films followed by microbial degradation [68]. DNA was isolated from pure cultures. The dark field microscopical study clearly illustrates that the erosions were formed by the radial discs, whereas abrasions with ridges and grooves were formed by the filaments of the microalga U. africanum (Fig. Whereas, in this present study, a green microalga, morphologically identified as Uronema africanum Borge was found colonized predominantly on the surface of the polyethylene bag collected from Kallukuttai Lake, near Taramani Railway Station, Chennai. Annual plastic disposal was estimated as 11,000,000 tons in Turkey9. Polym Degrad Stab 95:195200, Chiellini E, Corti A, Swift G (2003) Biodegradation of thermally-oxidized fragmented low-density polyethylenes. Bioresour Technol 98:23012312, Syranidou E, Karkanorachaki K, Amorotti F, Avgeropoulos A, Kolvenbach B, Zhou N, Fava F, Corvini PFX, Kalogerakis N (2019) Biodegradation of mixture of plasticfilms by tailored marine consortia. Privacy Furthermore, the exact biochemical mechanisms and enzymes involved in PE breakdown are still unknown. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.05.005, Gajendiran A, Krishnamoorthy S, Abraham J (2016) Microbial degradation of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) by Aspergillus Clavatus strain JASK1 isolated from landfill soil. (A) Three-dimensional view of control (untreated) LDPE sheet of 10m2 area; (B) Three-dimensional view of U. africanum treated LDPE sheet; (C) Topographical view of control (untreated) LDPE sheet; (D) Topographical view of U. africanum treated LDPE sheet with erosions on its surface. This study aimed at isolating and identifying bacteria and fungi that have the capacity to degrade low-density polyethylene. Similarly, by SEM analysis, erosion, pit formation, and cavities were clearly visible on the surface of the cyanobacteria (Phormidium lucidum and Oscillatoria subbrevis) treated LDPE sheets33. A comparison between % mean weight reduction of the 30 micron and 40, Fig 7. This strain was able to strongly adhere to HDPE surfaces, leading to increasing biofilm thickness with decreasing weight and tensile strength of the HDPE film by 18.4% and 60%, respectively, in 60 d. Possible biodegradation of an HDPE film exhibits the SEM and atomic force microscopy (AFM) images of subsurface corrosion, cracks, and surface roughness produced by bacteria. Degradation can be divided into abiotic (chemical, physical degradation) and biotic (biological degradationbiodegradation) depending on the factors involved [6]. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. PubMed Central Environ Sci Technol 49:1208712093, Yang J, Yang Y, Wu WM, Zhao J, Jiang L (2014) Evidence of polyethylene biodegradation by bacterial strains from the guts of plastic-eating waxworms. Background The biological degradation of plastics is a promising method to counter the increasing pollution of our planet with artificial polymers and to develop eco-friendly recycling strategies. The ultrasonic treatment lasted for two hours at 55C. Isolation of effective candidates for biodegradation was done based on the recorded biodegradation outcomes. This study aimed at isolating and identifying bacteria and fungi with the capacity to degrade low density polyethylene (LDPE). Thus, tests with labeled PS indicated the degradation of PS into 13CO2 and incorporation into lipids [120]. The pipes are affected by acidic or alkaline waters. Fungal Genet Biol 23:1833, Konduri MKR, Koteswarareddy G, Rohini Kumar DB, Venkata Reddy B, Lakshmi Narasu M (2011) Effect of pro-oxidants on biodegradation of polyethylene (LDPE) by indigenous fungal isolate, Aspergillus oryzae. Identification Product identifier Kollisolv PEG 400 Chemical name: polyethylene glycol CAS Number: 25322-68-3 Relevant identified uses of the substance or mixture and uses advised against Relevant identified uses: pharmaceutical excipient Bioresour Bioprocess 4:15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-017-0145-9, Ojha N, Pradhan N, Singh S, Barla A, Shrivastava A, Khatua P, Rai V, Bose S (2017) Evaluation of HDPE and LDPE degradation by fungus. Epub 2022 Oct 13. Methods and Results: Rationally, 15 bacteria (GMB1-GMB15) were isolated by enrichment technique. India Mar Pollut Bulletin 138:549560. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, In Handbook of Hydrocarbon and Lipid Microbiology, Rose RS, Richardson KH, Latvanen EJ, Hanson CA, Resmini M, Sanders IA (2020) Microbial degradation of plastic in aqueous solutions demonstrated by CO2 evolution and quantification. Sarmah, P. & Rout, J. One avenue for this is to identify plastic-degrading bacteria and associated enzymes from the gut bacteria of insect models such as Tenebrio molitor, Plodia interpunctella or Galleria mellonella that have the ability to ingest and rapidly degrade polyethylene. FT-IR spectra of polyethylene sheet, Fig 8. However, it is very obscure that the weight loss and surface structure changes result from degradation of additives, which often contribute a major portion of the polymer. In the study by Kyaw et al. J Environ Treat Tech 9:148157. From the view on the establishment of waste vinyl management, the researches on finding microorganisms effectively degrading plastics and analyzing their physiology and application are essential. Sci. Biodegradation of polyethylene and polypropylene. PCR products were visualised by electrophoresis on 1.5% agarose gel. Pol. Article Each mean weight represents the average of five sample means SE. The distribution and sizes of precipitated SNPs after synthesizing are discovered by these methods as well. Polym Test 31:10941099, Ren L, Men L, Zhang Z, Guan F, Tian J, Wang B, Wang J, Zhang Y, Zhang W (2019) Biodegradation of Polyethylene by Enterobacter sp D1 from the Guts of Wax Moth Galleria mellonella. 30). 3 Biotech 6(1):52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-016-0394-x, Abrusci C, Pablos JL, Corrales T, Lpez-Marn J, Marn I, Catalina F (2011) Biodegradation of photo-degraded mulching films based on polyethylenes and stearates of calcium and iron as pro-oxidant additives. The chemical bond includes CH stretch (2915.76cm1 and 2847.97cm1), and bends (1462.69cm1 1375.58cm1 and 729.35cm1) represents the presence of Alkanes (hydrocarbon) as a sole chemical functional group present in the control LDPE sheet (Fig. However, the same PE film treated with a partially purified laccase and a MnP from P. simplicissimum showed negligible weight loss [103]. At stationary phase, no significant difference in the release of CO2 between cells grown with no carbon source and with LDPE. & Pareek, A. Algal flora on degrading polythene waste. Enhanced biodegradation of low and high-density polyethylene by novel bacterial consortia formulated from plastic-contaminated cow dung under thermophilic conditions. J Appl Polym Sci 56:17891796, Ozdemir M, Floros JD (2004) Active food packaging technologies. Versatile properties of plastics, such as diverse application, convenience, non-degradability, and low price, have led to the replacement of natural materials and common use as household items since 1960. Those include various Gram-negative and Gram-positives species belonging to the genera Pseudomonas, Ralstonia, Stenotrophomonas, Klebsiella, Acinetobactor, etc. Genus Aspergillus, Bacillus and Brevibacillus were confirmed to be good candidates for Low Density Poly Ethene bio-degradation. 51, 199202 (1968). 1284 (2013). Polyethylene glycol diminishes pathological effects of Citrobacter rodentium infection by blocking bacterial attachment to the colonic epithelia. Whereas, the configuration of ridges and grooves were found similar with the filamentous nature of the microalga (1015m width). Alterations in crystallinity and the average molecular weight as a result of oxidation modify the chemical and mechanical properties of PE. And now, it an urgent need to promote a microbial plastic degradation process. Fritsch, F. E. The structure and reproduction of algae. Sci. For analysis of organic matter developed around the surface of the HDPE during the test, 50mg of PE and 10ml of CHCl3 were mixed in a 60ml glass vial. Two syringe membrane filters, pore size 0.2m, diameter 33mm (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) were attached to the tubing to protect the bottles from contamination from the environment. Based on our results, inert plastic material embedded in the landfill body seems to be preserved instead of allowing effective microbial biodegradation. In our study, UV pretreatment of HDPE particles was used. Fritsch, reported that algae including chaetophorales, diatoms (Bacillariophyceae) and blue-green algae (Cyanophyceae) synthesize EPS (Extracellular Polymeric Substance) to adhere the substratum25. Although it is clear that lower molecular weight products were formed by the catalytic action of pro-oxidants, which were consumed by the microorganisms, however, it is not known how microbes participate in polymer chain cleavage and what kind of enzyme system is involved in this process. Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. 24, 232239 (2016). The . Based on the morphology, the microalga was identified with the help of Dr. B. Babu, Assistant Professor, Department of Plant Biology and Plant Biotechnology, Madras Christian College (Autonomous), Chennai, 600059. After microalgal treatment of LDPE sheet, the culture medium was centrifuged at 5000rpm for 10min. Ramanathan, K. R. Ulotrichales (Indian Council of Agricultural Research, 1964). After 30days of incubation, the LDPE sheet was fully colonized by microalga and visualized like green hair-like structures protrude from the LDPE sheet (Fig. Table1 summarizes bacterial strains associated with PE biodegradation. The site was chosen based on the dumping of domestic wastes along the freshwater bodies due to rapid urbanization. The biodegradability of photodegradable polymers has been also studied using different bacteria. The hydrophilicity is usually estimated by measuring the contact angle of the surface with water. Worldwide the annual production of non-degradable plastic ranges from 350 million to 400 million tons out of that yearly, 5 to 13 million tons of waste plastic are released into the ocean, which is negatively affecting the ecological environment [47, 80]. Biodegradation of Low Density Polythene (LDPE) by Pseudomonas Species. Texas Publ. More than 20 bacterial genera have been shown to degrade different types of PE. A polyethylene sheet showed only partial degradation and negligible weight loss when kept in moist soil for 1232years [77]. Bioscience 42:680685. : ON518098, ON515459, ON514628, ON514627, ON514623, ON514621, ON514615 and ON514594. The bar graph showing differences in Area Roughness average (Sa), Roughness peak height (Sp), and Roughness pit height (Sv), comparatively between the control (untreated) and the U. africanum treated LDPE sheets of 10m2 area. Int J Curr Sci 12:17, Mochizuki M, Hayashi T, Nakayama K, Masuda T (1999) Studies on biodegradable poly (hexane-6-lactone) fibers. The effects of colchicine and dinitrophenol on the in vivo rates of anaphase A and B in the diatom Surirella. Preparations of CNT-Polyethylene-EPDM-Based Phase Change Materials In another study, SEM images had shown profuse cracks on the LDPE surface by the adherence of the algae21. 77, 466470 (2011). Google Scholar, Fa W, Wang J, Ge S, Chao C (2020) Performance ofphotodegradation andthermodegradation ofpolyethylene withphotocatalysts andthermooxidant additives. They isolated from soil a thermophilic bacterium Brevibaccillus borstelensis strain, which utilized low-density polyethylene as the sole carbon source and degraded it. Unlike many other forms of degradation, the effects of melt-processing degrades the entire bulk of the polymer, rather than just the surface layers. [7] reported that HDPE after thermal treatment was degraded by Klebsiella pneumoniae. PMC Secondly, HDPE film was chemically treated by immersing into KMnO4/HCl at a concentration of 0.25/0.5moll1 at 45C for 8h [32] and 10% citric acid for 8h at 45C. Biodegradation of PE is restricted by the absence of hydrolysable functional groups in the backbone [56, 86]. 3BD). Prior to SEM analysis, the sample could ionize by ion sputter on a metal stub for 20min. Cite this article. The site is secure. Int. Biosyst Eng 88:131143. The bar graph showing differences in Area Roughness average (Sa), Roughness peak height (Sp), and Roughness pit height (Sv), comparatively between the control (untreated) and the U. africanum treated LDPE sheets of 5m2 area. [116]. Curr Biol 27:744745, Wei R, Zimmermann W (2017) Microbial enzymes for the recycling of recalcitrant petroleum-based plastics: how far are we? Finally, 212 relevant compounds were identified in both matrices and divided into eleven groups according to their chemical structure (Fig. Sci. All rights reserved. In this study, we investigated the degradation of green polyethylene by P. ostreatus. Conventional pro-oxidants include transient metal ions such as iron, manganese, titanium, cobalt in the form of stearate. 4). Roy et al. 1. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 132:259267. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a thermoplast industrially produced from fossil feedstocks since the 1940s, nowadays prevalently used in bottle packaging and textiles. The cells in the filaments are prominently free and not grouped or clustered with a pointed apical cell. Abstract We have isolated and identified three types of lowdensity polyethylene (LDPE) degrading microbes, for the first time, from soil which was sampled from the field. Out of degradation products the hydrocarbons with single and double bonds were observed most frequently. Polyethylene, for example, was discovered in 1933, and the very first synthesis of light density polyethylene was performed in 1935 by Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett of the United Kingdom [1]. By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines. Eur. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Where, we have collected a polyethylene carry bag sample colonized by green photosynthetic microalgae and water sample (Fig. The U. africanum is a green filamentous alga, and hence the filaments were found attached perpendicular on the surface of LDPE sheet based on the light and dark-field microscopical studies. 2.2. (AL) Showing degraded surface of LDPE sheet by the microalga U. africanum (100 magnification) with erosions, abrasion and ridges and grooves on LDPE sheet. Atomic scope microscope Nanosurf Easyscan 2, head type EZ2-AFM with scan head 10-06-176.hed was used. Polym. Simultaneously, in our study, the occurrence of erosions, abrasions, grooves, and ridges by the microalga U. africanum on the surface of LDPE sheets, were clearly visible by SEM analysis. Kumar, R. V., Kanna, G. R. & Elumalai, S. Biodegradation of polyethylene by green photosynthetic microalgae. Abstract Exhausted studies on the degradation of polyethylene has been carried out in order to overcome the environmental problems associated . Predominantly tested weight loss along with physico-chemical changes are insufficient to prove the real biodegradation of PE. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. Front Microbiol 11:3095. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2020.603210, Jeon J-M, Park S-J, Choi T-R, Park J-H, Yang Y-H, Yoon J-J (2021) Biodegradation of polyethylene and polypropylene by Lysinibacillus species JJY0216 Isolated from soil grove. However, based on manual control of mass spectra several compounds were excluded based on their probable origin (chlorinated compounds may be formed as a consequence of chloroform application, compounds with iodine and bromine functional groups or polyaromatic hydrocarbons were likely laboratory origin, complicated long structures might be misidentified due to instrument inaccuracy). Stud. Biodegradation by bacterial genera Comamonas, Delftia and Stenotrophomonas was observed by Peixoto et al. Similarly, the washed LDPE sheets showing the presence of some microalgal filament due to strong attachment on the LDPE sheet by the radial disc. Degradation of a high molecular weight PE membrane by P. chrysosporium ME-446 and an isolate IZU-154 have been described and MnP from this white-rot fungus was found to be the key enzyme responsible for PE degradation [45]. assigned this research work as a post graduate project research work to D.K.G. (1) and expressed as a percentage of the dry weight loss of the plastic: where DW0-initial plastic sample dry weight (g). The bacterial species were isolated from 2 different landfill layers and their ability to degrade polyethylene particles, the most abundant type of plastic in the landfill, was evaluated using gravimetric method and GCMS analysis. Stud. Very least works were reported on the biodegradation of LDPE by photosynthetic algae. A thermophilic bacterium Brevibacillus borstelensis isolated from soil has been reported to utilize BLDPE as the sole carbon and energy source, by which 30% of the molecular weight of PE film was reduced during an incubation period of 30 d [41]. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. In the last decade, many biodegradable plastics have been introduced in the market. To name a few, genera of Comamonas, Pseudomonas, Rhodococcus, Staphylococcus, Streptomyces, Bacillus, Acinetobacter, Micrococcus have been experimentally shown to degrade polyethylene [36]. 15(2), 177192. Three different groups of microalgae were targeted for the biodegradation of LDPE sheet (Fig. Microscopic examination outcomes from lactophenol blue staining of Aspergillus fumigatus strain B2, 2, MeSH Sanniyasi, E., Gopal, R.K., Gunasekar, D.K. Univ. The researchers goal was to select a polyethylene-degrading micro-organism and study the factors affecting its biodegrading activity. CHCl3 was then transferred to a new vial using a glass Pasteur pipette. Palmisano AC, Pettigrew CA (1992) Biodegradability of Plastics. Procedia Technol 24:232239. In most of these biodegradation studies, PE degradation was determined by measuring weight loss, observing polymer structural changes under SEM, and chemical modifications of functional groups using FTIR [86, 97]. 32, 270277 (1968). The 2021 recall only impacted certain knee and ankle models. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek. These species were selected because they are considered to play an important role in decomposition. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. Bioremediation & Biodegradation, 2012; 3: Khanam PN, Mariam AA. In addition, 1H-NMR data were used to determine the chemical modifications in the residual polymer from the excreta of PE-fed mealworms, in comparison with bran-fed mealworms. Gas chromatography spectrum of microalga treated sample (with LDPE sheet). 31). The amount of plastic entering the environment is alarming [3, 4]. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Biodegradation and mineralization of PS by Tenebrio molitor have been studied using 13C-labeled PS [121, 122]. Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Even though, enormous studies have been demonstrated on the biodegradation of plastics by microbes, none of them applied practically to solve this issue. Successful attempts in the Wax moth ( Galleria mellonella) aided fast bio-degradation of PE was reported to generate ethylene glycol [ 47 ]. The number of chemical compounds observed in both matrices after HDPE degradation with pure bacterial cultures can be found in Fig. 2017 Mar;24(9):8443-8457. doi: 10.1007/s11356-017-8537-0. The gut microbiome study with next generation sequence analysis has shown the abundance of Citrobacter sp. Efficient biodegradation of low-density polyethylene by cyanobacteria isolated from submerged polyethylene surface in domestic sewage water. Searches were performed based on nucleotide sequence comparisons. Int J Environ Research Public Health 16(11):1941. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16111941, Saratale GD, Saratale RG, Chang JS, Govindwar SP (2011) Fixed-Bed decolorization of reactive blue 172 by Proteus Vulgaris NCIM-2027 immobilized on Luffa Cylindrica Sponge. 2022 BioMed Central Ltd unless otherwise stated. J. Environ. The most numerous types of compounds in the medium samples were single-bonded hydrocarbons (maximum in the sample with the Jonesia denitrificans), except for the sample with the Pseudomonas tuomurensis with more of double-bonded hydrocarbons (in total 20). Gram staining was performed to determine the number, shape, and configuration of the cell wall of all isolated cultures. % mean weight reduction of the 30 micron polyethylene sheet incubated with 25, Fig 2. Hence, more substantial changes are needed to distinguish the actual degradation of PE and minimizing chances of artifacts originated from the degradation of additives [21, 86, 97]. Capabilities and challenges. J Appl Microbiol 123:582593, Yakowitz H (1990) Incineration of municipal solid waste: scientific and technical evaluation of the state-of-the-art by an expert panel. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.11.037, Veethahavya KS, Rajath BS, Noobia S, Kumar BM (2016) Biodegradation of low density polyethylene in aqueous media. The hydrocarbons with single and double bonds are observed most frequently. At the end of the experiments, the weight loss of HDPE was determined. Careers. To improve this degrading capacity through assessment of optimum conditions for microbial activity and enzyme production will enable these findings to be applied commercially and on a larger scale. However, a medium without organic carbon proved to be insufficient, as the viability of the microorganisms decreased within a few days of the start of the experiment [42]. Okeke ES, Ejeromedoghene O, Addey CI, Atakpa EO, Bello SF, Ezeorba TPC, Chukwudozie KI, Okoye CO. Heliyon. https://doi.org/10.1016/0079-6700(90)90027 (1990). Polyethylene (PE) has been considered nonbiodegradable for decades. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2016.07.072, Farzi A, Dehnad A, Shirzad N, Norouzifard F (2017) Biodegradation of high density polyethylene using Streptomyces species. Only compounds with a similarity of 800 or higher were considered. One of these ways could be degradation. This early degradation left thousands with implants that could prematurely fracture or crack. Properties of plastics such as durability, flexibility, strength, inertness and light-weight including its cost-effective production are the major advantages. Sarmah, P. & Rout, J. Colonization of Oscillatoria on submerged polyethylene in domestic sewage water of Silchar town, Assam (India). For example, Jeon et al. This could mean that the microorganisms from this sampling point have a higher ability to degrade HDPE and thus can adapt to the landfill environment as they age. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:1254912562, Barnes DK, Galgani F, Thompson RC, Barlaz M (2009) Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments. [47] and Mahalakshmi et al. There is a need for providing concrete and reliable evidence for biodegradation of PE in order to minimize artifacts formed from degradation of additives rather than PE. Biodegradation studies have been accomplished either using pure cultures that are able to degrade PE [2, 5, 8, 34, 38, 41, 54, 81, 84, 101, 110, 113, 117, 119] or using complex microbial communities from various terrestrial (soil from landfill sites, composting) and marine habitats [1, 3, 6, 18, 49, 61, 71, 74, 76, 79]. TiO2 mediated photocatalysis involves the absorption of photons of suitable energy leading to the generation of electrons and holes which promote the formation of free radicals, resulting in the oxidation of the polymer, followed by its degradation. According to Geyer [3], about 6 300 million tonnes of plastic were produced in 2015. Biodegradation of low-density polyethylene (LDPE) sheet by microalga, Uronema africanum Borge. Manage cookies/Do not sell my data we use in the preference centre. 1) had lower HDPE dry weight loss. Thank you for visiting nature.com. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2004.02.010, Article For the analysis of biodegradation products in the mineral salt medium, 20ml of the medium was extracted in 10ml of CHCl3 after the experiment. Microalga treated LDPE sheet (1cm2) showing green hair-like structures protruding from the LDPE sheet. Internet Explorer). Our study provides insight into the microbial biodegradation of polyethylene in the environment and contributes to the understanding of the biodegradation processes that may occur in landfills and their progress. volume4, Articlenumber:302 (2022) 6). It has stronger intermolecular forces and greater tensile strength than LDPE. Molecules. E4 at 37C for 80 d converted 20% of the low molecular weight PE sample to CO2. https://doi.org/10.1111/1462-2920.13023, Caporaso JG, Kuczynski J, Stombaugh J, Bittinger K, Bushman FD, Costello EK, Fierer N, Pea AG, Goodrich JK, Gordon JI et al (2010) QIIME allows analysis of high-throughput community sequencing data. Aspergillus clavatus treated LDPE sheet for 90days of incubation in aqueous medium, had shown fractures, erosion and grooves without any prior treatment of the LDPE sheet38. Thirty two species were isolated from both sampling points. PubMed Central https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2020.912.152, Science Advice for Policy by European Academies (SAPEA) Biodegradability of Plastics in the Open Environment; Science Advice for Policy by European Academies (SAPEA): DE, 2020; ISBN 978-3-9820301-8-0, Narancic T, Cerrone F, Beagan N, OConnor KE (2020) Recent advances in bioplastics: application and biodegradation. About 56 million ton of PET was produce worldwide in 2013 alone. However, in India, annual plastic waste was estimated as 5.6 million metric tons. Aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, esters, etc. All blank samples were processed in the same way as the other samples. According to the researchers, previous studies showed no signs of deterioration could be observed in a polyethylene sheet that had been incubated in moist soil for 12years and only partial degradation was observed in a polyethylene film buried in soil for 32years. Microbes such as bacteria, fungi and algae are involved in polyethylene degradation in its natural habitat. The authors thank BELT PLAST, s.r.o. Optical density was measured to check the turbidity of all samples. For examples, biodegradation of LDPE by A. niger and A. japonicas in laboratory conditions have been found to decrease the dry weight by 5.8% and 11.1% per month, respectively [82]. The tensile strength and elongation at break of TFPE film reduced to 60% and 97.7%, respectively [31]. Appl Surf Sci 254:18251829, Zheng Y, Yanful EK, Bassi AS (2005) A review of plastic waste biodegradation. J. Ford, T. & Mitchell, R. The ecology of microbial corrosion. PEG metabolism has been reported for several sphingo-monads, and the first step in the degradation pathway is dependent on PEG dehydrogenase (PEGDH) (Kawai and Yamanaka 1989; Yamanaka and Kawai 1989). Each mean weight represents the average of three replicates SE. [120] explored biodegradation of PE and plastic mixtures by yellow mealworms i.e. Weight loss measurement is a commonly used method to analyze biodegradation of PE. Analysis of the 16S rDNA and 18S rDNA sequences for bacteria and fungi respectively showed that bacteria belonging to genera Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Brevibacillus, Cellulosimicrobium, Lysinibacillus and fungi of genus Aspergillus were implicated as polyethylene degraders. Plastic waste management and recycling became a serious global issue as it affects living beings from all the ecosystems. The samples of plastics were transferred into sterile glass containers (bottles) using sterile instruments and transported to the laboratory. When the LDPE sheets were treated with U. africanum for 30days of incubation, the LDPE sheets were completely colonized by the alga and green hair-like structures were seen nakedly protrude from the surface of the LDPE sheets. Balasubramanian et al. 2010 ). Gas chromatography and mass spectrometric analysis (GCMS) and Fourier transform infra-red spectrometry (FT-IR) are the determining factor for biodegradation of polyethylene35. as a landmark for polythene degrading bacteria. High weight loss was described by Sangeetha et al. 46, 523530 (1988). Curr. Therefore, plausible, alternative solution for this issue is biodegradation. 56, 17891796 (1995). Among the plastic usage in India, only 60% of the total plastic was collected and recycled. Esmaeili, A., Pourbabaee, A. Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter what matters in science, free to your inbox daily. The scanning electron microscopic images clearly reveals the presence of erosions, abrasions, grooves and ridges on the surface of the microalga treated LDPE sheet. The AFM and SEM analysis is widely used to ratify PE degradation by fungal strains leading to biofilm formation and morphological changes on LDPE and HDPE surfaces, including cracks, pits, and undulations [75]. Some microorganisms are known to produce enzymes (depolymerase, hydrolase) that can be used for polymer degradation [12, 13]. Molecular mass can also be determined using gel permeation chromatography [40]. Morphological characteristic features of the selected microalga were observed and studied microscopically. There are two different types of LDPE, linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) and branched low density polyethylene (BLDPE). Hence, the results from many of these studies need to be cross checked using more advanced physico-chemical, biochemical, and molecular biological technologies [21, 115]. Gilan, I., Hadar, Y. In addition, the small size of suspended plastics causes the reduction of light transmission on the sea surface, photosynthetic efficiency of micro-algae, and the productivity of marine organisms. AlkB family alkane hydroxylases (AH) (EC 1.14.15.3) can degrade hydrocarbon oligomers by terminal or sub-terminal oxidation [89]. Biodegradation of polyethylene: a brief review. The cooperative action of abiotic factors and microorganisms causes fragmentation of the bulk polymer to increase accessible surfaces for biodegradation. Plastic (polyethylene) pollution is a severe cause of deterioration of a healthy environment. The four metro cities contribute about 21.2% of total plastic waste in India, viz. It's a pretty fascinating endeavor because not only does it show students interested in plastics, it can also be a potential positive development for recycling packaging waste. PubMed The experiment was performed in sterile, clear 500ml gas wash bottles according to Drechsel. Degradation of polyethylene is affected by environment factors like oxygen, UV radiation, and temperature. (A) 10 magnification; (B) 40 magnification and (C) 100 magnification. Plots were generated using the Origin2021b software package (OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, MA, USA). Monika Vtzov. Cell Biol. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. J Appl Polym Sci 105:14661470, Huang J, Shetty AS, Wang M (1990) Biodegradable plastics: a review. Int J Microbiol. In this study we evaluate the extent of degradation of high-density polyethylene by bacterial isolates obtained from landfill. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 65:451459. Part 2-Chain-Chlorinated Polystyrene Polymer Degradation and Stability 18 213 . and Pseudomonas sp., respectively. Notably, the long chain fatty acids from beeswax and PE were detected even in the absence of gut microbiota indicating that the PE metabolism can occur without help of gut microflora. Therefore, this is a hitherto report on the biodegradation of LDPE sheet by the microalga Uronema africanum Borge. For optical microscopical study on biodegradation of LDPE sheet by the selected microalga; sophisticated, binocular, compound microscope was employed (Lawrence and Mayo). Environ Pollut 231:15521559. Henceforth, these methods are unsustainable and ineffective for plastic waste management by causing further hazardous effects to the environment. Physico-chemical technologies include thermal and UV treatment or combination of both, which reduces the polymer chain size and form oxidized groups such as carboxyl, carbonyl and hydroxyl, on the surface of polymer [19, 44, 57, 68]. A fresh untreated LDPE sheet was used as control. Experiment by Kyaw et al. African Journal of Bacteriology Research, 2015; 3: 9295. PET is made from petroleum and is widely used in textile industries and plastic bottles. Degradation products are detected, confirming the progressive degradation of the plastic. The amount of waste plastics has been increasing every year in Korea (Fig. Polyethylene waste contamination is one of the most concerning environmental issues not only in India but also in world. The most common microalga colonizing the LDPE sheet was isolated, sub-cultured and maintained in the algal culture room based on streak plate method. Experiment design setup; A water bath with eight gas wash bottles according to Drechsel and system for water heating and mixing; B clear 500ml gas wash bottles according to Drechsel, with indication of air flow, showing medium and virgin HDPE particles. Commonly, Oscillatoria, Phormidium, Lyngbya, Nostoc, Spirulina, Hydrocoleum, Chlorella, Pithophora, Stigeoclonium tenue, Anomoeoneis and Nitzschia were reported to colonize the polyethylene bags in aquatic environment31,32. Springer Nature. Polyethylene PE Degrading Microorganisms PE is composed of a linear chain of carbons held together by hydrogen bonds ( Figure 1 ). The speed of degradation depends upon the chemical nature of polymer, on the environmental conditions in which it is placed and on the amount of polymer. Single-bonded hydrocarbons predominated in the media; in contrast, numerous double-bonded hydrocarbons were observed in the organic matter around the surface of HDPE. 11). Hence, TiO2-incorporated polymer films efficiently absorb UV light. Microalgae are photoautotrophic microbes reported to colonize on the surface of polyethylene sheets submerged in wastewater21,24. In another study, approximately 12months incubation of LDPE sheet with microbes increase surface roughness when compared with the control, causing deterioration. They also https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.09.043, Ren L, Men L, Zhang Z, Guan F, Tian J, Wang B, Wang J, Zhang Y, Zhang W (2019) Biodegradation of Polyethylene by Enterobacter Sp. Google Scholar. The topic of plastic pollution has generated controversy, including arguments that resources would be better spent combating global warming. CAS 2022 Nov 14;8(11):e11562. Molecular Characterization of Low-Density Polyethene (LDPE) Degrading Bacteria and Fungi from Dandora Dumpsite, Nairobi, Kenya. Vol (ed. I recently talked with some U.K. students who believe a solution to reducing plastic waste is to plant polystyrene. Overview of the groups of biodegradable compounds found in the organic matter around the surface of HDPE after degradation with all tested bacterial species, Overview of the groups of biodegradable compounds found in the medium after degradation with all tested bacterial species. Maximal biodegradation was obtained in combination with photo-oxidation, which showed that carbonyl residues formed by photo-oxidation play a role in biodegradation. 6318, 195 (1963). Chemical degradation is based on the use of chemicals that can break a polymer chain and produce non-toxic substances [6]. J Clean Prod 208:6576. 6(1), 952961 (2015). and Park J. S. 2001 Ultraviolet selective and mechanical properties of . Accessed 30 August 2022, Li Z, Wei R, Gao M, Ren Y, Yu B, Nie K, Xu H, Liu L (2020) Biodegradation of low-density polyethylene by microbulbifer hydrolyticus IRE-31. J. Algal Biomass Utln. The AFM was controlled using the software version 3.0.1.16 and firmware version 3.1.3.0. LDPE films are transparent, free from odor and toxicity. Usha et al. B Biol. During biodeterioration, plastic polymers are modified by microorganisms in cooperation with abiotic factors. In fact, the plastic waste contributes about 25% of municipal waste in Australia, 20% in the US and Germany and 7.5% in the Western Europe8. Diat. 3, we present the results we obtained in the degradation of plastics under laboratory conditions, including the analyses of the culture medium to find typical products of plastics biodegradation. Rev Biol Trop 51:629633, Kershaw MJ, Talbot NJ (1998) Hydrophobins and repellents: proteins with fundamental roles in fungal morphogenesis. The plastic surface is damaged by metabolites and extracellular enzymes released by the microorganisms. An increase in the average of molecular weight is witnessed after initial degradation of low molecular weight chains [5, 41, 81, 119]. Cite this article. This study was financially supported from Institutional funds for the development of the research organization TGM WRI, p.r.i., within the framework of the internal grant No. Biofilm formation on the surface of the polymers [14, 34, 38, 54, 101, 110] and penetration of hyphal structures [44, 83, 113] have been generally observed after incubation with microbes. According to a report by Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences in 2014, mulching waste vinyl reduced the movement of essential materials in soil such as air, moisture, and nutrients and the mobility of soil organisms including earthworms [60]. The highest degradation activity for bacteria was a mean of 35.72 4.01% and 20.28 2.30% attributed to Bacillus cereus strain A5,a (MG645264) and Brevibacillus borstelensis strain B2,2 (MG645267) respectively. J. Appl. Cantilever type: ContAI-G was used with static force as operating mode and Air was the measurement environment. 1 were processed in the laboratory of the T. G. Masaryk Water Research Institute, public research institution, Brno branch (Brno, Czech Republic), and the remaining samples were processed in the Section of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University (Brno, Czech Republic). Appl Biol Chem 63, 27 (2020). SEM and AFM analyses are commonly employed to investigate surface topography of PE films during biodegradation. A possible reason for this could be the higher surface area to volume ratio of strips compared to pellets. Bookshelf PubMed The study by Vimala and Mathew [24] suggests that UV pretreatment along with the addition of biosurfactants improves the rate of biodegradation. After 30days of incubation, the LDPE sheets were taken out from the culture flasks and analyzed for its biodegradation by microalga. The results of microalga treated LDPE sheet was compared with the results obtained from the untreated LDPE sheet (control). Approximately 0.5 m3 of the excavated material was moved to an area where samples were collected from the centre of the waste pile to avoid cross contamination with other wastes. Electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) analysis showed the release of 3-hydroxybutyrate oligomers only in the medium containing pretreated LLDPE and not with native LLDPE. CAS Int. Polyethylene degrading ability of the isolates has been assessed individually in a synthetic media containing polyethylene as a carbon source. Similar polyethylene degradation products were identified by Hakkarainen and Albertsson [44]. As a result, Sa, Sp, and Sv of both surface topography roughness, and voltage deflection were found higher in sample (U. africanum treated LDPE sheet) than the control (microalga untreated LDPE sheet). & Buyukgungor, H. Enhancement of biodegradability of disposable polyethylene in controlled biological soil. Int Biodeterior Biodegradation 45:4955, Otake Y, Kobayashi T, Asabe H, Murakami N, Ono K (1995) Biodegradation of low density polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, and urea formaldehyde resin buried under soil for over 32 years. Resour Conserv Recycl 5:343363, Danso D, Chow J, Streit WR (2019) Plastics: environmental and biotechnological perspectives on microbial degradation. Similarly, U. africanum treated LDPE sheet was found eroded on the surface, and no such erosions were found on the surface of microalga untreated LDPE sheet in all the three 5m2 (Fig. (A) Three-dimensional view of control (untreated) LDPE sheet of 25m2 area; (B) Three-dimensional view of U. africanum treated LDPE sheet; (C) Topographical view of control (untreated) LDPE sheet; (D) Topographical view of U. africanum LDPE sheet with erosions, grooves and ridges on its surface. Slov. Air from the central air distribution system flowed through the manifold into the bottles. Therefore, the overall microscopical studies resulted that, the dark field microscopy, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy have shown the configuration of the radial disc-like structure were correspondingly equal in size at an average diameter of approximately 2030m (Fig. Similar kind of results were obtained for ridges and grooves also, which was configured by the microalgal filaments with an average size of 1015m in width (Fig. 65, 97104 (2004). The extracellular peroxidases play a vital role in the biodegradation of PE by this strain [70]. Curr Sci 90:2021, Sen SK, Raut S (2015) Microbial degradation of low density polyethylene (LDPE): a review. Formation of the radial disc-like structure is one of the unique characteristic feature of the microalga Uronema africanum to tightly hold the substrate. Other different methods to monitor the degradation rate have been reported, e.g. Vierh. Albertsson, A.-C. & Karlsson, S. The influence of biotic and abiotic environments on the degradation of polyethylene. This degradation introduces chemical weak points into the polymer, particularly in the form of hydroperoxides, which become initiation sites for further degradation during the object's lifetime. J. Biochem. DNA isolated from the bacterial cells was subjected to DNA sequencing. For example, pretreatment with UV light has been demonstrated to improve biodegradation [19]. Sunil Ghatge and Youri Yang are contributed equally to this work, School of Earth Sciences and Environmental Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju, 61005, Republic of Korea, Agricultural Microbiology Division, National Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Rural Development Administration, Wanju, 55365, Republic of Korea, You can also search for this author in CAS Brevibaccillus borstelensis also degraded the CH2 backbone of non-irradiated polyethylene. In Sect. Prasad, B. N. & Misra, P. K. On a xanthophycean alga new to India. Polym Bull 77:14171432, Favaro SL, Rubira AF, Muniz EC, Radovanovic E (2007) Surface modification of HDPE, PP, and PET films with KMnO4/HCl solutions. 6th edn, Microalgae and Protozoa (Microbial Culture Collections, National Institute for Environmental Studies, 2000). CAS Suseela, M. R. & Toppo, K. Algal biofilms on polythene and its possible degradation. This suggested that bioavailability of carbon was limited in bacterial growth on LDPE hence showing limited biodegradation. Google Scholar, Glaser JA (2019) Biological Degradation of Polymers in the Environment. Accessibility In our previous study, a cyanobacterium Dolichospermum spiroides was found to be colonized on the surface of the LDPE sheets22. Each vial containing a sample was placed in an ultrasonic bath (3742kHz). Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. For isolation of microalga colonizing on the surface of LDPE sheet, we have used three different culture media Bold basal medium (BBM)46, BG 1147,48,49 and DM (Diatom medium)50,51 to target Chlorophyceae (Green algae), Cyanophyceae (Blue-green algae) and Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms) members respectively. Large amounts of carboxylic acid esters, alcohols and ketones were detected in both types of material. 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