In M. A. K. Halliday, A. Mclntosh, & P. Stevens (Eds. Her intertextual analyses demonstrate how medical texts use metaphors of production to represent women's reproductive processes, which she argues contribute to the alienation of a woman from her bodily experiences. (For code mixing and switching, see, e.g., Bhatia & Ritchie, 1989; see especially Kamwangamalu, 1989.) Some recent studies (see Ely, 1986a, b) have augmented the more abstract models of attitude and motivation by correlating the results of the questionnaires with self-reported risk taking as indicated, for example, by volunteering answers or raising one's hand in the classroom. Boards minimally worn, good to very good condition. PERCENTAGE OF VERNACULAR [in] PRONUNCIATION FOR FOUR SOCIAL GROUPS IN SPEECH COMMUNITIES IN BRITAIN, THE UNITED STATES, AND AUSTRALIA* Social group 1 2 3 4 Norwich West Yorkshire New York Brisbane 31 5 7 17 42 34 32 31 91 61 45 49 100 83 75 63 2 The Norwich data are adapted from Trudgill (1974); the West Yorkshire, from Petyt (1985); the New York City, from Labov (1966), and the Brisbane, from Lee (1989). They often correspond more to the former imperial boundaries than to language, ethnic, or religious distribution. It's cookin' now: A performance analysis of the speech events of a black teacher in an urban community college. Structurally, the formal distinction between a pidgin and a Creole language is difficult to draw. In Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 9 Interactional sociolinguistics Deborah Schiffrin Introduction Interactional sociolinguistics is a theoretical and methodological perspective on language use that is based in linguistics, sociology, and anthropology. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Thomason, S. G., &c Kaufman, T. (1988). English Language Teacher Development. ), Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 14, 220-239. A page from Libro de los exemplos por a. b. c. [ es] by Clemente Snchez de Vercial [ es] An exemplum (Latin for "example", pl. 10 pp. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. This phenomenon, known as code switching, has attracted a great deal of research attention in the last two decades. Conceptualizing motivation in foreign-language learning. Literacy as praxis: A framework and an introduction. Contrary to much of the field of linguistics, which prides itself on its detached descriptivism, language planning strives to prescribe policy for the stated purpose of solving "communication problems," which it often does. Figure 5 shows the distribution of postvocalic Id the pronunciation of Id after a vowel, as in bark - in Britain. Black-White dimensions in sociolinguistic test bias. The student can recall topics, speech style, and speech intentions as they vary across the cards. Amazon.com: Sociolinguistics and Language Teaching (Cambridge Applied Linguistics): 9780521484343: McKay, Sandra Lee, Hornberger, Nancy H.: Books . Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Pronouns of address in Swedish: Social class semantics and a changing system. New York: Harper and Row. How many millions? New York: ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education, Institute for Urban and Minority Education. The attitudinal situation is complicated in Outer Circle countries by the inescapable fact that English is a colonial legacy that has prompted continual cries for the minimization or elimination of its use in favor of the promotion of an indigenous language. They describe the CrossCultural Speech Act Realization Project (CCSARP) looking at requests and apologies across languages and within speech communities with different social variables operating. The original categories from Schaefer accounted for 94 percent of native realizations and 86 percent of nonnative-speaker data. The construction of conversational equality by women. The emphasis on regular systematic evaluation of skills in two languages rather than one is a useful indicator of the valorization of bilingualism in any society. Cultures at the other end focus on deliberately searching for new possibilities and explanations and answering questions of what if. The unique event and the recurrent pattern must be seen both from the perspective of their native participants and from the vantage point afforded by cross-cultural knowledge and comparison. Modern Language Journal, 70, 2835. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Includes contributions by many scholars currently working on language and gender. The distribution of apologies was analyzed according to the type of offense needing remedy, the gender of the subjects, and the social relationship between the participants. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that many creative writers have used code mixing as a powerful expressive resource to convey multicultural experiences. Fishman (1972a) extended this concept to functional specialization of two or more languages within a community. Oxford: Blackwell. Auxiliary inversion in embedded questions (without */or whether), as in "I asked him could he go with me" for SE "I asked him whether he could go with me." The other tongue: English across cultures (2nd ed.). : Power, solidarity and community in the discourse of African-American women. Reader versus writer responsibility: A new typology. ), Language proficiency and academic achievement (pp. One of the most complete ethnographic studies of language development yet conducted was done by Heath (1983), who describes how children from two culturally different communities in the Piedmont Carolinas learn to use language. Chapters cover the basic areas of sociolinguistics, including regional and social variations in dialects, language and gender, World English, and intercultural communication. The three dialects of English. Smith, L. E. Language: German . Dispeling the male-only myth: Chicanas and Calo. Strategies of such power relationships are the focus of Erickson and Shultz's study (1982) "The Counselor as Gatekeeper,55 for instance. Cheshire, J. Definitions Much early work in the study of language attitudes traces both basic conceptualization and form of measurement to the work of Gardner and Lambert (1972), psychologists interested in the language attitudes of Anglophone and Francophone Canadians, adults and children, toward English and French. Morgan, M. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex. Based upon what he sees as limitations of the first two orientations, Ruiz suggests - within the context of language planning in the United States - that the language as resource orientation resolves some of the difficulties of the other two. Gass and Varonis provide a useful theoretical and practical complement to the research on language anxiety discussed previously. The seminal work in this area is Heath (1983), who studied the literacy behavior of two communities in the Piedmont Carolinas Trackton, a working-class African-American community, and Roadville, a working-class white community. Such attitudinal schizophrenia is yet another cause of complexities in the larger English-using world. Another extensively studied case of particular interest to many American ESL and EFL teachers is gender and politeness in Japan. The investigators claimed that these results may be explained by the nature of the input: learners received positive and negative feedback from the adviser regarding the desirability and outcome of particular speech acts, but they did not receive such feedback regarding the appropriateness of the sociolinguistic forms that they used to realize those speech acts. Each of these vignettes depicts ways in which language and culture interact with policy and program in language minority young peoples' educational experiences. In T. Skutnabb-Kangas & J. Cummins (Eds. (rough gloss: Ym going to get myself some support) Gumperz's analysis of the utterance "Ahma git me a gig!" Corpus planning involves "activities such as coining new terms, reforming spelling, and adopting a new script. For example, the unmarked term nurse is often marked when the nurse is a man (male nurse), reflecting a cultural assumption that nurses are women. In the situation just described, for instance, patterns and forms for communication varied greatly from event to event, and yet they stayed relatively constant for each type of event throughout the year. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. ), Aspects of sociolinguistics in South Asia. Ochs, Elinor (1993). It was found that nonnative speakers used more semantic formulas to realize each rejection and made more rejections altogether than did native speakers, and native speakers made suggestions more than twice as often as they rejected advice. Philips, S. (1983). Although the Japanese were more overtly conscious of status and did not cover it up in their use of language, the Americans were found to harbor a polite fiction that they and their interlocutors were equals. In C. Cazden, V. P. John, &c D. Hymes (Eds. The orientation of each group toward school, and the community around the school, reflects the group's sense of how best to prepare for their lives after high school (Eckert, 1988, pp. Paperback, $20.95 (CA $27.95) (US $20.95) Publication Date: October 2017. She goes on to speculate that the reason why children of middle and upper socioeconomic classes generally do not suffer ill effects from initial schooling in a second language (as children of lower socioeconomic classes often do) "may well be that there is no attempt to interfere with the rules of communicative competence of the upper-class children . Doublespeak: Dialectology in the service of Big Brother. Intelligibility A major fear expressed by those concerned with standards and correctness has been that English is crumbling at its edges, becoming less and less English in the mouths and from the pens of those who (it is claimed) do not so much use it as abuse it. A selected bibliography of studies on codemixing and code-switching (1970-1988). The issue is not whether U.S. educational language policies have been successful or unsuccessful, but for whom, and under what circumstances, they have been successful or unsuccessful. Here, again, corpus planning determines status planning, since the process of standardization results in what is usually called the proper or correct variety or is sometimes called the preferred or power variety. Neoclassical-autonomous aspects of Einar Haugens approach toward language planning Einar Haugen is widely regarded as one of the pioneers and more influential theorists in language planning (see Haugen, 1966, 1973/ 1992, 1983). In the second chapter, "Pidgins and Creoles," Patricia Nichols discusses how new language varieties can be created out of existing languages and what this means for individuals who speak these varieties. Speakers in the areas labeled A - including Ireland, Scotland, southwestern England, and a small area near Liverpool - pronounce their Ids in this position, but speakers in the B area - basically the rest of England and Wales, including the city of London - do not. Without tracing its origins to the Germanic languages on the European continent, we can agree that English originated (as English) in the British Isles and that its standard form arose from the usage of educated people basically, those who could read and write and were close to the royal court (see B. Kachru, 1992c). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. However, Martin's interviews with working-class women revealed alternative constructions which did not reflect the separation of a woman and her body because, she argues, these women derive their view of experience not from medical texts and other instantiations of dominant ideologies but "from their bodily processes as they occur in society" (1987, p. 200). As mentioned, Goffman's work focused on how the organization of social life (in institution's, interactions, etc.) Community attitudes toward black English. 4). That is not to say, however, that the latter type of communication is culture-free. Writing Systems. International Review of Education, 37(1), 7-31. English may be a coofficial language, or it may be, as in the United States, the official language in fact though not in law. The death of black English: Divergence and controversy in black and white vernaculars. . ), Bilingual education: Focusschrift in honor of Joshua A. Fishman on the occasion of his 65th birthday (Vol. For example, Vargas (1986) contends that "the need for the nation's work force to be continuously replenished by adequately trained and functionally literate workers becomes increasingly important" (p. 9). L 2 Learner interpretations of the DCT prompt: Sociolinguistic inference generated from context. 2649). In J. Valdes (Ed. (Eds.). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters Ltd. He concludes that "the socioeconomic value of literacy cannot be measured on a scale with linear progress" (p. 211). A bibliography of pidgin and Creole languages. Pride and J. Holmes (Eds. McKay, S. L. (1989). Leibowitz, A. H. (1974, August). This section offers some fundamental points about such analyses that might guide teachers who want to adopt some insights of this approach for use in their classrooms. Jocks' communities are largely defined by school district boundaries, and they aim to learn how to control school resources (space, information, freedom, visibility, rights, and materials to organize social events) within the hierarchical corporate structure of the school. This book is a collection of readings that deals with diversity in literacy traditions. I'm just following your lead. Haugen, E. (1973/1992). In Ulrich Ammon, Norbert Dittmar, & Klaus J. Mattheier (Eds. Program in school School-wide or targeted One-way or two-way sojisuapejeip |ejnprujs Languages in curriculum Sequencing of languages as mediums of instruction Oral and literate development Subject allocation Classroom language use Patterns Alternate: lessons, teachers, days/weeks/am-pm, rooms Mixed: code switching, concurrent translation, preview-review, new concurrent approach Functions: speech acts, interactional structures Figure 2. 18 Tokens are realizations of the given semantic formula. New York: Bergin & Garvey. Probably more than any other scholar, Fishman (e.g., 1981, 1991) has drawn attention to what he terms language enrichment policy by exploring ways to reverse language shift. Whose language? ?" Cooper, R. L. (1989). 5, edited by Robert Birchfield (1994), will be of special interest to students of world Englishes. ), Women in their speech communities (pp. About 100 to 200 pidgin and Creole languages are spoken worldwide, depending on the definitions used to identify them. Although schools play an important role in community-based language planning, they also play a major role in promoting national standard languages and thereby help to extend the influence of the state along its horizontal axis across groups. If, on the other hand, she does learn to speak like a lady, she will be systematically denied access to power on the ground that she is Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 232 Rebecca Freeman and Bonnie McElhinny not capable of holding it, with her linguistic behavior as partial evidence for that claim. ), Explorations in the ethnography of speaking (pp. Oxford 24. In A. Duranti &C C. Goodwin (Eds. Claremont, CA: Institute for Education in Transformation, the Claremont Graduate School. Wolfson, Nessa (1989). Theberge, Christine, & Rickford, John R. (1989). It need hardly be stressed that communication is skilled work. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 170 John R. Rickford 1001 97 Norwich Detroit Sqj8A JB|nOBUJ9A JO aeBJUGOJed 80 79 71 57 60 40 - 20 10 1 1 2 YZA 2 3 4 Social groups or classes Figure 10. Todd, L. (1990). The term gradually deteriorated to "a rustic rude woman," and finally came to mean "a lewd, brazen woman or prostitute" (p. 137). Because individuals participate in a literacy practice in different ways, the "use of oral and written language mix and blur and vary as the language situation changes" (Langer, 1987, p. 4). The three communities he investigated were an Eskimo fishing village in south-central Alaska, a partly migrant, partly settled Hispanic community in the Pacific Northwest, and a community of Hmong immigrants living on the West Coast. . With respect to compliment topic, Americans complimented more on someone's appearance than on their ability (66 percent vs. 33 percent), but for the British speakers this was reversed (54 percent for ability vs. 39 percent for appearance). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. (a) Bob doesn't worry a lot anymore; (b) Bob still worries a lot; (c) Bob worries a lot nowadays; (d) Other: 2. Anyon, J. ), Directions in sociolinguistics (pp. One might therefore expect, and indeed Mexicano speakers believe, that women are more likely to use Mexicano (or at least certain salient features of Mexicano) more than men do and that women would use Spanish less (or at least certain salient features of Spanish less), but Hill finds that women's speech is at once less Mexicano and less Spanish than men's speech is. London: Hansib. . Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. Ide, Sachiko, & McGloin, Naomi (1991). Street uses the terms autonomous and ideological models, which are roughly Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 116 Terrence G. Wiley parallel to Tollefson's neoclassical and historical-structural approaches, respectively. Again, however, communication problems can also result from the imposition of language policies by one group upon another. The list might include the following, but the possibilities are virtually unlimited: My Fair Lady (based on George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion), the PBS television series The Story of English (with accompanying text by McCrum et al., 1986), the November 19, 1987, discus21 See also Heath (1983) and the papers in Brooks (1985). Between speech and silence: The problematics of research on language and gender. Finally, to follow up, an interview might take place in order to provide further insights regarding the production or perception Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Speech acts 391 TABLE I . His distanced, public discourse, which relies on less interaction and less prior knowledge of persons and places known to the storyteller, is topic-centered and thus in the style preferred for most formal classroom writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This notion gave the Inner Circle countries a great deal of real and imagined power over the users and use of English. Although native speakers and nonnative speakers did not seem to differ markedly in the use of main strategies for apologizing, striking differences emerged in the various modifications of such apologies, especially in the use of intensifies such as very and really. Students of English may find color terms included in their elementary-level lessons and quickly memorize (blue, yellow, red, and so on), but apply them to slightly different segments of the color spectrum than do native speakers. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Atlantic meets Pacific: A global view of pidginization and creolization. However, when there are such dramatic word- and sentence-level differences as we have seen between Creoles and their lexifier languages, discourse-level differences are likely to go unrecognized and unaddressed in the classroom setting. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. This leads to a discussion with him about how, growing up here, with the media coverage of their community, and so on, the Puerto Rican young people's Puerto Rican identity in some ways comes to reflect the external rather than the internal point of view. Regional dialect differences arise for various reasons. Many teachertraining programs already incorporate information about such language varieties, and practicing teachers who keep abreast of the pedagogical literature read about how their colleagues have applied such findings to curricular design and methodology. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 186 John R. Rickford This book represents an attempt by a variety of linguists and language practitioners to apply general linguistics principles and research on specific varieties to the education of speakers of those varieties. . In some ways, as Mikulecky points out, rising literacy demands are similar to what happens in a crowd when the front row rises: everyone else has to rise in order to see and participate (p. 27). Often, teachers have a particular responsibility for certain aspects of language instruction, whether they be acquisition of native language literacy skills or skills in a second language. Formats: Paperback, ebook: EPUB. Together, the papers exemplify the substantive focus on discrete linguistic features and modes of analysis characteristic of sociolinguistics in the 1970s. Goodwin, Marjorie Harness (1992). New York: Newbury House/HarperCollins. Hymes (1974) stresses the fact that members of a speech community are unified by norms about uses of language. The position of a given language on this hierarchy is determined by very pragmatic considerations. Los Angeles: University of California. Like all institutions and establishments, schools and classrooms contain a wide array of resources that allow people to occupy the different social roles associated with education (e.g., teacher, student, administrator) and to engage in, and coordinate, the activities that sustain those roles. Fingeret, A. It has been said with only slight flippancy that a language is a dialect with an army" (p. 234). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Learning lessons. On the other hand, girls manifest "elaborate linguistic and interactional skills" and do "difficult and artful work" in order to mediate opposition (p. 531). How can we teach second language learners to be rhythmically fluent in conversation, and to be so when they are acting as listeners as well as when they are acting as speakers? Note that the lower-workingclass (LWC) speakers' usage of these features ranged from a high of 84 percent for consonant cluster simplification to a low of 6 percent for plural -s absence, and that although the middle-class speakers used consonant cluster simplification at least half the time, they used the other features very infrequently, in some cases not at all. Lambert, W. E., &c Tucker, G. R. (1972). Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 14:3452. New York: McGraw-Hill. Linguistic hegemony is achieved when dominant groups create a consensus by convincing others to accept their language norms and usage as standard or paradigmatic. DeCapua, A. Reexamining English only in the ESL classroom. They analyze, in fine detail, a limited number of entire conversations or substantial episodes within conversations. Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics. Many also believe that students should be assisted in developing bidialectal competence in AAVE and standard English.18 Linguists have consistently suggested that the goal of being competent in AAVE and Standard English would be better achieved if the structural, rhetorical, and expressive characteristics of African-American vernacular language were taken into account. Not all writers wish to intervene in language matters, and many writers who innovate do so for aesthetic reasons. ), Directions in sociolinguistics: The ethnography of communication (pp. Americans or American immigrants who speak Spanish natively also reflect considerable cultural variability according to whether they were born in the United States, according to their national or regional origin if they were not born in the United States, according to their social class, and so on. ), Women and language in literature and society (pp. In diglossic situations, people can be quite aware that they have switched from H to L or vice versa, whereas code switching appears to be quite unconscious. The company she studied adopted a deliberate policy of using Portuguese friendship networks and churches to recruit employees, since non-English-speaking immigrants would work for lower wages. Model dialogues are a useful way to present students with examples of the speech act in use. Most generally put, interactional sociolinguistics is the study of the linguistic and social construction of interaction. Framing language rights issues from the perspective of either the individual or the group as the locus of rights has implications for how we approach language planning, since individual protections can either supersede or be overruled by those of the group. The ability to discriminate between variants which carry social meaning by serving as markers of social categories and those which are socially insignificant and the knowledge of what the social meaning of a variant is in a particular situation are components of communicative competence. The fact that the implementation of the style manual made a difference, however, illustrates how texts can also be used to alter the status quo. ), Culture and the bilingual classroom: Studies in classroom ethnography (pp. London: Longman. % 10.9 9 7.8 6 3.1 2 32.8 10 1.6 1 56.2 100.0 87 3.5 1.2 4.6 5.8 10.4 25.5 36.9 6.0 42.9 4 0 8 15 6 2.4 0.0 4.8 8.9 3.6 19.7 10.4 23 13.7 6.9 4.2 5 2.4 13 7.7 11.5 18 10.7 2 1.2 1.2 32.4 37.5 99.3 168 100.1 A: Your hair looks nice today. Pedagogical applications Thus far in this chapter, it has become evident that interactional sociolinguistics provides a way to analyze social context and to incorporate Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Interactional sociolinguistics 323 participants5 own understanding of context into the inferencing of meaning. . See, that boy duh cheat. Geertz, C. (1973). The chapter will conclude with a discussion of the pedagogical implications of viewing literacy as a social practice for language classrooms in Anglophone countries. For ethnographers it is essential to differentiate the referential and social components of language use; the social component receives the most emphasis. Gardner, R. C , &c Maclntyre, P. D. (1993). Language and sex: Difference and dominance. Introspective methodology in interlanguage pragmatics research. Norm-makers, norm-breakers: Uses of speech by men and women in a Malagasy community. English is the language of courtrooms. Language minority "language problems55 have, for the most part, been defined by the majority and its institutions, and the absence of a minority voice in these institutions is a problem. University, AL: University of Alabama Press. Herbert, R. K. (1989). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. The next section describes and analyzes major goals for language planning, that is, language goals, political goals, and economic goals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 91119). Greenfield, L. (1972). B. In general, the work of ethnographic microanalysis suggests that, because communication style and social identity are so locally situated and fluid, it is good advice for students to study their own communicative experience reflectively rather than to learn generalizations about the cultural speaking style of ethnic others (see the discussion in Erickson & Shultz, 1982, pp. Philips, Susan, Steele, Susan, &: Tanz, Christine (Eds.). We have discussed how literacy is a collaborative endeavor in which different members of the community play different roles in literacy events. Block and Cameron's collection shows how, in an economy based on services and information, the linguistic skills of workers becomes increasingly important. Although immigration issues are usually framed as issues of national policy, it is often at the local level where decisions are made that affect accommodation for language differences. In J. Neu & S. Gass (Eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The researchers made notes about naturally occurring instances of facethreatening acts and asked fifteen American and fifteen Japanese respondents to do a discourse completion task in English with twelve situations and a choice of opting out. 435453). Code switching and code mixing as a communicative strategy in multilingual discourse. Perhaps more important than what people say about each other is how they say it to each other. There is a great range of proficiency evidenced by the users of English in every country, from Asia to the New World. Corson, D. (1989). 119 144). (pp. This code switching was probably related to their awareness that English was considered the appropriate language for this activity in the school setting. With respect to production, an extensive study by Holmes (1989) presented the range of strategies serving as apologies in a New Zealand corpus of 183 naturally occurring remedial exchanges and the linguistic formulas used in these exchanges. It is in this traditional competitive classroom that boys seem to be advantaged (Sadker &c Sadker, 1993; Tannen, 1992). NABE Journal, 12(2), 171185. ), Black language reader (pp. ), Contact and conflict in intergroup attitudes (pp. Zuskin found few general differences either between native English and linguistically heterogeneous nonnative interpretations of the vignettes or between the interpretations made by the various subgroups of nonnative speakers.17 However, for three of the twelve vignettes, the gender of the subjects was a significant factor in interpreting the speech acts, contributing more to the variance than either subjects' proficiency level or the interaction between gender and proficiency level. It follows that in judging the adequacy of the multilinguaPs linguistic competence one must keep in mind the composite nature of the repertoire. The same is true for students who use a dialect different from that found in school settings. In general, in this community there was little literacy in English or in the native language. One way in which texts reflect the social order is by how their subjects are assigned certain social roles. Have you finished that essay yet? Sledd, J. 111-139). Five visions of America. Langer, J. 87-93). Forty teachers in the southwestern United States rated the tapes and compositions. Bhatia, T. K. (1984). ), Black English: A Seminar (pp. Words on a feminist dictionary. London: Longman.] (Ed.) Request interpretation 1 33.3 8.1 Whites No. Erickson, F. (1987). Chamberlain, J. Edward (1993). In Quechua, for instance, "Semantic parallelism [used in the conventional organization of verbal lore] constrains the variability of word meanings by ensuring that they are learned relationally, rather than individually55 (Hill & Mannheim, 1992, p. 399, citing research reported in Mannheim, 1986; see also Sherzer, 1987). Goldstein, L. M. (1987). Finally, he discusses the manner in which race and ethnicity can influence language use and summarizes the major phonological and grammatical features of African-American Vernacular English. You arrive half an hour late for the meeting. Echols, Alice (1989). (1992). This would enable us to see whether they convey seriousness or joking, distance or relationship, and so on, between the structure of language and the structure of speaking (p. 132). Sutcliffe, David, with Figueroa, John (1992). Kozol, J. Such language classifications can have the force of racial labeling or act as a surrogate for it (Wiley, in press). Currently, videotape is used, but with few exceptions (e.g., Goodwin, 1981), central research attention continues to focus on speech rather than on nonverbal behavior in interaction. This book focuses on twenty Mexican families in a small community of southern California and on their concern with their children's academic success in literacy. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Earlier Gullah texts collected by Turner (1949) show virtually no use of at. Figure 6, page 161: Reprinted from Agar, D. E. (1990). Unofficial policies, which also have influence, result from the pronouncements of language academies or flow from the works of "great" writers or various "authorities" such as lexicographers, influential publishers, or religious reformers. Romaine, S. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Not every African-American speaks AAVE, and no one uses the features in Table 2 100 percent of the time. 11. Hence, from a linguistic perspective, it is clear that blanket prohibitions of a community dialect in school whether as a medium for student-to-student or teacherto-student communication are not justified; decisions about the contextual appropriateness of various language forms should instead reflect the student's age and proficiency level as well as the intent of any particular instructional interaction. For instance, the Wallon (WalFlemish \ Wallon Picard Breton German Lorrain Normand ~T^ Champenois Langue d'oi'l Francien Gallo Angevin Poitevin \ Bourguignon Berrichon Limousin \ Francoprovengal Auvergnat J / Gascon Langue d'oc Provengal Alpin Provengal maritime Laguedocien Basque Nigart \ Rhodanien Catalan Corsican Figure 6. The approach ignores the historical and social context within which individuals live; that is, it overlooks differential power between groups. The terms literate and illiterate are clearly the most highly charged labels in terms of providing one with a social identity. Phillipson, R. (1992). The functional complementarity of languages also implies that it may be unnecessary and unrealistic to expect complete and nativelike competence in the entire range of registers, styles, and functions of English. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 62, 51-74. If there is no change in major participants and setting, the boundary between events is often marked by a period of silence and, perhaps, a change of body position. Some of the more common causes of conflicts occur during periods of rapid social and demographic change. (1980). The authors of Part II demonstrate how geographical location, ethnic background, social class, and gender can all influence an individual's use of particular phonological, structural, lexical, and discourse features of English. Bright (1992) describes language shift as "The gradual or sudden move from the use of one language to another, either by an individual or a group" (Vol. Talkin and testifyin: The language of black America. The specificity of the dialogue completion task vis-a-vis the open questionnaire was found to be particularly helpful for the nonnative respondents. More negative willingness/ability (e.g., "I can't") and empathy (rather than regret) occurred in refusals to requests (e.g., of co-workers). Back to the past: The BEV/creole connection revisited. She points out that a communication style was imposed on slaves arising from the enslavers' interpretation that direct expression of feelings, questions, and eye contact were acts of aggression. 1735). 301341). She then discusses current theoretical approaches to studying language attitudes and motivation, emphasizing the research done in school settings and on teacher, student, and parent attitudes. Kamwangamalu, N. M. (1989). Teachers' attitudes toward black and nonstandard English as measured by the language attitude scale. A number of discussions have pointed out the weaknesses and fallacies of such a view (see B. Kachru 1994; Y. Kachru, 1993; Sridhar & Sridhar, 1986). . Bailey, Beryl (1965). Linguistics and Education, 1, 125-152. The book also analyzes the rela- Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Language planning and policy 141 tionship between the English teaching profession and the dominance of English as a world language. Sociolinguistics and language teaching by Sandra Lee McKay, 1996, Cambridge University Press edition, in English. Milk, R. D. (1994, March). Ei grand man. Needless to say, it is imperative for the sake of language instruction to continue the research efforts necessary to provide accurate information regarding the way speech acts actually work in communicative situations within differing languages and cultures. Linguistics Anthropological Linguistics. Tollefson, J. W. (1981). Thus, for a complaint situation, the students may receive a card or see a video clip of a situation in which one role is that of a neighbor who is having a party and playing loud music late at night and the other is that of the person in an adjacent apartment who needs to get to sleep because she or he must take an important exam the next morning. Cook-Gumperz, J. Through sections focusing on both research in educational settings and implications for pedagogy, he brings alive for the classroom teacher such microethnographic findings as the importance of listening activity in relation to speaking, the role of rhythmic organization of conversation in interaction, the ways in 281 Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 282 Sociolinguistics and language teaching which situated social identity and comembership are enacted in interaction, and the importance of participants' framing of cultural difference in communication style as boundary or as border. Ideally, all language in classrooms would be used cooperatively by students and teachers to construct mutually satisfying exchanges that further educational goals. Language and the social construction of identity in Creole situations. It also revisits a contentious debate over appropriate instruction for language minorities and considers issues of professional responsibility for linguists and language teachers. In W. Bright (Ed. London: Methuen. Pragmatics and Language Learning, 3, 3352. This book contains the proceedings of a 2-day research symposium on biliteracy. McDermott, R. P. et al. These cues signal a shift from one variety of English to another: The student asks the instructor for a recommendation in European-American standard English but speaks to the other students in African-American Vernacular English (see Rickford, this volume). (see Trueba, 1988; Trueba, Jacobs, & Kirton, 1990). . Schieffelin (1987) describes a similar situation among the Kaluli, a small nonstratified society in Papua New Guinea. Hobsbawn, E. J. ), American dialect research (pp. Contexts of accommodation: Developments in applied sociolinguistics. London: Cambridge University Press. . indicated a lack of understanding, he could make substitutions for two words in his native Creole, known as Gullah, that moved his variety closer to my standard English. Bhatia, T. K., & Ritchie, W. This is a pedagogical as well as a social and political challenge. (1988). We are not just typecast by a single category of social identity throughout an entire encounter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Teachers College Record, 92(2), 212229. In thinking of a country as an ESL country or of a person as an ESL speaker, for example, we perpetuate the dichotomy of native versus nonnative, "us versus them." To save content items to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org Gumperz, J. 139-162). A = casual speech, B = careful speech, C = reading style. New York: Newbury House/Harper and Row. Cognition plus: Correlates of language learning success. Dialects are characterized by identifiable differences vis-a-vis other dialects, in pronunciation, lexical choice or usage, grammar, and so on; we speak easily of southern English, New England English, American English, and British English (see Rickford, this volume). Although Lakoff seemed to suggest that all the forms she listed were referential markers of gender, Ochs argues that, in any community, there is a fairly small set of linguistic forms that referentially index gender (examples of such forms in English include third-person pronouns - he or she, him or her - and some address forms like Mrs., Mr., and Ms.). They could, for example, use language as a means of instruction in discussions of grammar or board games. But perhaps more important than providing the student with information about how to be communicatively competent in a particular community of practice, the experience of learning how to conduct an ethnography of communication study would help students develop strategic competence, an aspect of Canale's and Swain's (1980) nowclassic model of communicative competence that has been relatively neglected in L2 pedagogy. Age grading involves features associated with specific age groups as a developmental or social stage, as in the two-word utterances of children around 18 months of age ("Mommy sock," "Drink soup55 - Moskowitz, 1985, p. 55), or the in-group slang of teenagers (rad, "cool,55 gnarly, "gross55 or "cool55 - T. Labov, 1992, p. 350). Bokamba, E. (1988). Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 432 Sandra Lee McKay Reder gives an example of how these levels of engagement interacted in the case of a town meeting he attended. Bilingual education program types. bore no more resemblance to English-based West Indian Creoles than modern ABE, and indeed less. 4958). In some contexts, written pidgin and Creole languages are used as the actual language of instruction, particularly in the initial years of schooling, when this practice is reported to enhance acquisition of literacy. (1991). He contends that voluntary linguistic assimilation was possible, given the openness of the U.S. society, and because many immigrants saw opportunities in the United States as being superior to those in their countries of origin. . Even with the intervention of mass literacy campaigns, social problems persisted (Graff, 1979). The communicative event is the basic unit for descriptive purposes. This wisdom, developed partly as resistance to "slave reality55 and partly as a challenge to the little-changed social and political circumstances after slavery's end, constructed an alternative reality which "allowed them to express a positive self-view as men and women capable of responsibility and control55 even in situations in which grown men and women were Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Language and gender 257 treated like children (p. 423). To explain this, the investigators speculated that this candidness may have resulted from the context of second language learning - that is, their ESL guise influenced their behavior. 3. Then Bubba gone get ee gun and shoot um. He argues that, by contrast, South Africans give few compliments but accept most of the ones they receive in order to keep subordinates at distance, by allowing the compliments to imply that they are superior to their interlocutors. Responsibility for any errors or infelicities is, of course, my own. Observing the different attitudes toward possible norms of English around the world prompts the notion of pluralistic centers of reference for norms and standards; if there are two - the United States and Britain why not three? Second, several excellent surveys of the research literature have appeared which help to define and shape the field of investigation with respect to speech act research (e.g., Kasper & Dahl, 1991; Wolfson, 1989). Results from the questionnaire indicated that instruction had had little effect, and the telephone interview indicated no effect. (1966). Paradigm examples would be teaching, a job interview, a jural interrogation, a football game, a task in a workshop, a dinner party, and so on. Spender, Dale (1985). It is important to keep in mind that each language in the repertoire brings with it its own set of grammatical, lexical, pragmatic, and sociolinguistic rules and conventions (norms). Semiotica, 80, 121151. Mantle-Bromley, C , & Miller, R. B. The organization of some classroom encounters into servicelike encounters (business transactions in which a customer requests a good or service from a server; Merritt, 1984, 1982) suggests that ritualized interchanges and formulaic moves can provide a framework for the preservation of face. A second way in which literacy practices reflect the social context arises from the fact that different communities socialize their young in different ways regarding these practices. One African-American judge whom I interviewed in Philadelphia was surprised to discover that he was immediately distinguished from his EuropeanAmerican friends by his ability to provide the correct remote phase interpretation to example 2 in the quiz. The counselor as gatekeeper: Social interactions in interviews. Gal, Susan (1991). Literacy Research Center, 4(1), 1, 3, 5. This book, addressed to experienced and novice language educators, provides an up-to-date overview of sociolinguistics, reflecting changes in the global situation and the continuing evolution of the field and its relevance to language education around the world. It traces the ascendancy of English historically and its influence as a language of dominance in Third World countries. Language and Gender Language and Gender is a new introduction to the study of the r, This page intentionally left blank Realization of final ng as n in gerunds and participles, e.g., walkin for SE "walking. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Language and education 457 Media of biliteracy Learners pursue this practice through the medium of the language varieties and literacies available to them in any particular context. Perspectives: Sociolinguistics and TESOL. Selinker, L. (1992). Rickford, this volume; Nichols, this volume). (1994). Effective instructional conversation in native American classrooms. Rather they are associated with the verbal genres themselves" (Sherzer, 1987, p. 104). The language of the professions: Discourse and career. An enrichment model of education, designed to maximize learners' biliterate development and educational opportunities, might look very different in each of these contexts. Women and men speaking. Albany: State University of New York Press. (1988). (1977, p. 284) Kloss's framing of language discrimination as a problem of individuals is typical of the neoclassical approach. 7. Fishman, Pamela (1983). (1970). He suggests that the insight that interactional "trouble" develops interactionally rather than unilaterally is itself liberating and allows learners to avoid unhelpful repair strategies based on blaming the other participant or oneself. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Modern Language Journal, 77(1), 34-44. The lines separating the areas in which each variant is used (Dutch cheese, pot cheese and smearcase) are called isoglosses (see Chambers & Trudgill, 1980, p. 103, for further discussion of this term). Corpus planning may include attempts to define or reform the standard language by changing or introducing forms in spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. As our study shows . A standard language is thus the end result of this historical process. 31-54). The emergence of black English. Although it was unfortunate that they did not question Lakoff s understanding of many of these forms as markers of hesitancy or tentativeness, they still made an important contribution toward the understanding of how linguistic forms might be linked with the construction of social identity. ), Teaching Black children to read (pp. White teachers' negative reactions to black students' "sharing-time" stories, for example, show that cultural conventions for the telling and interpretation of coherent stories are not shared by the two communities (Michaels, 1981); whereas the white community builds stories upon temporal coherence, the black community depends upon topical coherence. [S]ources at Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 76 Braj B. Kachru and Cecil L. Nelson Pakistan's Foreign Office are adamantly evasive to comment on the progress made so far. His work establishes the importance of the state in creating policies toward immigrant majority languages that can (1) promote, (2) accommodate, (3) tolerate, or (4) suppress them. Policies may be derived from de facto planners, such as state educational agencies, or from tradition more broadly (McKay, 1993, see especially Chap. (1978). 218 Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Language and gender 219 feminist scholars challenge their exclusive association with women and point out their value for all people. Advances in the study of societal multilingualism. Pease-Alvarez, C , & Vasquez, O. Its path was foreseen, however, by John Adams, who, in the late eighteenth 71 Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 72 Bra] B. Kachru and Cecil L. Nelson century, made the following insightful prophesy (cited by B. Kachru, 1992a, p. 2): English will be the most respectable language in the world and the most universally read and spoken in the next century, if not before the close of this one. Connections between culture, society, individual, and code are developed in Gumperz (1982a), essays which seek to develop interpretive sociolinguistic approaches to the analysis of ongoing processes in faceto-face interactions. Preschool girls' discourse competence: Managing conflict. In John Bergen (Ed. There are significant cultural differences across different speech communities in the organization of speaker-audience relationships and other aspects of what can be called the social participation structure or social participation framework of conversation. . Smith, Philip (1985). . ), Directions in sociolinguistics: The ethnography of communication (pp. However, the causality between national economic well-being and language and literacy planning may be overestimated. Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 Language and gender 279 Shibamoto, Janet (1985). ), Writing across languages: Analysis of L2 texts (pp. For example, I coded the above response as 1 + 3. 153 189). It is against this backdrop that teachers in general, and language teachers specifically, face the challenging task of respecting linguistic diversity while promoting common standards. @kindle.com emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply. ), Language attitudes: Current trends and prospects. Contingent foundations: Feminism and the question of 'postmodernism'. McGroarty, M. (1991). In the first chapter, "Language Attitudes, Motivation, and Standards,55 Mary McGroarty examines how social factors influence an individual's attitude and motivation toward learning a language and how social attitudes create and legitimize language standards. Arnold Leibowitzs historical-structuralideological approach Arnold Leibowitz concentrates on the imposition of English language requirements for access to and participation in a variety of contexts: political, legal, economic, and educational (see Leibowitz, 1969, 1971, 1974, 1980, 1982, 1984). ), in the sense of trouver bon de faire quelquechose ("find it good to do something," or easy, difficult, hard, etc.) Ballenger, C. (1992). Cambridge: Newbury House/HarperCollins. It is very unlikely in a complex community that any single individual can produce the full range of the community's repertoire. Abdullah, A.G. In considering the possibility for attitudinal change through language study, we cannot forget that attitudes and motivation for study are not only Cambridge Books Online Cambridge University Press, 2009 22 Mary McGroarty cognitive but have strong affective components, so that emotional concomitants of second language study must be addressed explicitly to make the learning experience a positive one. Harmondsworth, United Kingdom: Penguin Books. Feigenbaum, Irwin (1970). As Goffman (1967b, p. 85) points out, we share responsibility for the maintenance of one another's face: "[Individuals must hold hands in a chain of ceremony, each giving deferentially with proper demeanor to the one on the right what will be received deferentially from the one on the left." 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